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Every self-respecting scientist will say that the role of chance in history is minimal. However, it is worth recognizing that it was thanks to the occasion that Catherine the First was able not only to approach the royal throne, but also to occupy it. Even despite the short two-year reign, this woman entered Russian history as the first empress of Russia.
Marta Skavronskaya (real name and surname of Catherine), the future empress and chosen one of Peter the Great, was born on April 15, 1684. Modern researchers of the life of the Empress and historians do not reliably know the exact place of her birth, but most of them assume that Latvia was her homeland. Opponents of this theory argue that, judging by the name of the girl, she was originally from Poland. Her childhood was not easy.
Catherine herself later said that her parents died from the plague, after which she ended up in the house of pastor Gluck (also, there are many versions of how the girl got into his family). For the first time she married when she was barely seventeen years old, and Martha's husband was a Swedish military man who soon died in the war, leaving her a widow.
In 1702, during the rapid offensive of Russian troops on the city of Marienburg, Marta was captured. Later, in the same city, Emperor Peter the Great meets her, and then takes her away as a court lady for Princess Natalya. In the same period, Marta was baptized, as a result of which she received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. It is worth noting that, apparently, the king himself was present during this ceremony. Attentive, cheerful and educated, Catherine has since spent a lot of time with the emperor, who, after a couple of months, can no longer imagine himself without her company. Unlike his first wife, this girl fully supports his ideas and praises the European path of development of the state, which was outlined by Peter. Moreover, Catherine accompanies the emperor in his Prussian campaigns, after which the couple decides to legalize their relationship.
In 1712, Peter the Great and Ekaterina Alekseevna got married. It is worth noting that at that time they already had common children (Elizabeth and Anna), in addition to whom the empress gave birth to the ruler nine more children, most of whom died in early childhood. In the same historical period, Peter insists on the coronation of Catherine as the ruling queen.
In 1725, Peter the Great went to bed with an unknown illness from which he soon died, without presenting his successor. As usually happens, immediately after the death of the king, the struggle for the throne began. However, Catherine came out the winner, having actually arranged the first palace coup in the history of the Russian Empire.
Thus, apart from Princess Olga, who only "replaced" her son, Catherine the First became the first woman to become the head of Russia. Although, as modern historians assure us, she only fulfilled everything that the Supreme Privy Council dictated to her, which at that time was led by the main ally of the emperor Menshikov.
Since the empress was not strong in matters of government and did not strive for this, most often, she was engaged in her own affairs. Contemporaries of the queen note that she could not live a day without attending assemblies and balls, where she did nothing but make small talk, avoiding issues that concerned politics in general and the Russian Empire in particular.
The long wars waged by Emperor Peter practically depleted the country's economy. In addition, the people were dissatisfied with the rise in the price of bread, which occurred due to lean years. In order to stop social unrest and avoid riots, Catherine was forced to reduce the poll tax.
However, not everything in the domestic politics of Russia during the reign of Catherine the Great was so sad. It is worth noting that at that time the Academy of Sciences was opened, and Bereng's first expedition to Kamchatka was equipped. In addition, the number of bureaucratic institutions was reduced, which only duplicated the functions of each other. Catherine allowed the nobles to build manufactories and sell their goods, and the state monopoly was abolished for merchants and customs duties were reduced.
The foreign policy of the first empress of the Russian Empire was for the most part aimed at expanding the borders of the state. Under Catherine, Russia ceded the Shirvan region, and attempts were also made to recapture the Persian lands in the Caucasus.
Despite such aggressive plans of the queen, the Russian state was able to enlist the support of some Western countries. For example, friendly relations were built with Austria, Prussia, Spain, with which Russia later entered the Vienna Union.
In early 1727, Empress Catherine the First died.
Catherine 1 is the only Russian empress who went from rags to riches. Marta Skavronskaya - that was actually the name of the empress, was born into a family of peasants, and met her future husband Peter 1, being a servant of Menshikov.
After the sudden death of Peter the Great, with the support of the intriguer Menshikov, Catherine comes to power. However, this is nothing more than a formality.
Taking advantage of the situation, a group of people dreaming of power created the Supreme Privy Council. It included several dignitaries, who began to run everything. The empress, ignorant of state affairs, presiding there, played the most insignificant role. Soon, seeing the threat posed by Menshikov, Catherine included her son-in-law, the Duke of Holstein, in the council.
As might be expected, the Senate ceased to play any role. A small handful of people made all the important decisions, and Catherine the First only signed the documents.
Long wars could not but affect the economic condition of the country. Due to crop failures, the price of the essential product, bread, jumped up, and unrest began to grow. To prevent unrest, it was decided to reduce the poll tax, which collected large arrears.
But not everything in domestic politics was so sad. It was under Catherine 1 that the Academy of Sciences was opened and the first expedition to Kamchatka led by Bereng was equipped. The number of bureaucratic institutions has decreased, and, accordingly, the number of parasites. The empress allowed the nobles everywhere to sell their goods and even build manufactories for processing raw materials. The merchants did not ignore either. For them, she abolished the state monopoly and reduced customs duties on certain goods. Despite the obvious lobbying for the interests of the wealthy part of the population, the common people treated the Empress well and even went to her with their needs.
The foreign policy of Catherine 1 was mainly aimed at the future - the expansion of borders. So, for example, Russia managed to "take over" the Shirvan region. In addition, in the Caucasus there was a separate corps headed by Prince Dolgorukov. The goal was to recapture the Persian territories. Despite such aggressive aspirations, with some Western countries, the same Austria, the Empress managed to establish good relations, which cannot be said about Denmark and England. The reason for this is Catherine's support for the views of the Duke of Holstein on the territory of these countries. Of course, the empress can be understood: after all, the duke was her son-in-law. As a result, Russia, together with friendly countries: Austria, Spain, Prussia, entered the Vienna Union. In opposition to them, France, England, Denmark, Sweden, Holland formed the Hanoverian Union.
In the section on the question Results of the reign of Catherine 1. asked by the author European the best answer is During the reign of Catherine I, the Academy of Sciences was opened, the expedition of V. Bering was organized, the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky was established.
During the 2 years of the reign of Catherine I, Russia did not wage major wars, only in the Caucasus a separate corps operated under the command of Prince Dolgorukov, trying to recapture the Persian territories, while Persia was in a state of unrest, and Turkey unsuccessfully fought against the Persian rebels. In Europe, the matter was limited to diplomatic activity in defending the interests of the Duke of Holstein (husband of Anna Petrovna, daughter of Catherine I) against Denmark.
Russia waged war with the Turks in Dagestan and Georgia. Catherine's plan to return Schleswig taken by the Danes to the Duke of Holstein led to military operations against Russia from Denmark and England. In relation to Poland, Russia tried to pursue a peaceful policy.
Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of prominent statesmen, generals, writers, artists, musicians
Under her, the persecution of the Old Believers was stopped, Catholic and Protestant churches and mosques were built.
The war with Turkey ended in 1791. In 1792, the Treaty of Jassy was signed, which secured Russia's influence in Bessarabia and Transcaucasia, as well as the annexation of the Crimea. In 1793 and 1795, the second and third partitions of Poland took place, finally putting an end to Polish statehood.
Firstly, Catherine finished the work begun by Peter, she carried out the Provincial reform, according to which the country was divided into provinces (But not by territory, but by population).
Thanks to Catherine, by the end of the eighteenth century, we increased our foreign trade by (!) 4 times! The first banks appeared, as well as paper money (banknotes). Domestic trade also became freer, absolutely everyone was allowed to open their manufactories without special permission from the government. Under her, the persecution of the Old Believers was stopped, Catholic and Protestant churches and mosques were built.
The war with Turkey ended in 1791. In 1792, the Treaty of Jassy was signed, which secured Russia's influence in Bessarabia and Transcaucasia, as well as the annexation of the Crimea. In 1793 and 1795, the second and third partitions of Poland took place, finally putting an end to Polish statehood.
In general, so to speak, Catherine completely and completely prepared us for entering the new, 19th century!
Reign of Paul 1
After death Catherine II her son Paul I ascended the throne. During her lifetime, Catherine actually removed Paul from power, their relationship was very cool. In 1794, she tried to deprive him of the right to inherit the throne and transfer power to her grandson. However, the empress could not fulfill her intention.
Having become emperor, Paul changed the order that existed at the court of Catherine. His policy in all areas was extremely inconsistent. He restored the abolished collegiums, changed the administrative division of Russia, reducing the number of provinces, and returned the former forms of administration of the provinces of Russia. Pavel deprived the nobility of privileges, limited the effect of letters of commendation, and constrained local self-government. In 1797, he established the norm of peasant labor (three days of corvée a week), this was the first restriction of landlord power. However, during the 4 years of his reign, he distributed to the landowners more than 600 thousand peasants belonging to the state.
In all his activities, Paul I allowed extremes and pursued an inappropriate policy. He banned the words "club", "council", "fatherland", "citizen". Banned the waltz, some details of clothing. He granted amnesty to politically motivated prisoners arrested under Catherine II, but at the same time continued to fight against revolutionary manifestations in society. In 1797-1799. he established the most severe censorship, banning 639 publications. On July 5, 1800, many printing houses were sealed for censorship. Paul interfered in the affairs of religion, trying to introduce elements of Catholicism into Orthodoxy.
The emperor repealed the law prohibiting the purchase of peasants to work in enterprises. He, without any justification, contrary to the meaning, restored the collegiate system, abolished by Catherine II.
Among the innovations introduced by the emperor, the creation of the Medico-Surgical Academy, the Russian-American Company, and the school for military orphans stand out positively.
The emperor attached great importance to regulations in military relations. The drill in the army acquired unprecedented proportions, which caused discontent among the guards and among the senior officers.
In 1798, an anti-French coalition was created, which included England, Austria, Turkey and Russia. The Black Sea squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakov was sent to the Mediterranean Sea. The Russian fleet liberated the Ionian Islands and southern Italy from French occupation. In February 1799, a major battle took place for the island of Corfu, where a three thousandth French garrison was defeated. Russian troops entered Naples and Rome.
In 1799, Russia began the land phase of the war. At the insistence of the allies, the command of the troops was entrusted to A.V. Suvorov. For a month and a half of hostilities, Russian troops managed to oust the French from Northern Italy. Fearing the growth of Russian influence in Italy, Austria achieved the transfer of Suvorov's troops to Switzerland. On August 31, 1799, to assist the troops of General A.M. Rimsky-Korsakov, Suvorov makes a heroic transition from Northern Italy through the Alps to Switzerland. Russian troops in the battles at Saint Gotthard and Devil's Bridge defeated the enemy. But help came too late, and Rimsky-Korsakov's troops were defeated.
In 1800, Paul I makes a sharp turn in foreign policy. He stops hostilities, withdraws troops to Russia and breaks the alliance with England and Austria. Having made peace with France, Paul I enters into an alliance with Prussia against Austria and with Prussia, Switzerland and Denmark against England. The aggravation of relations with England caused discontent among the nobility, since England was Russia's main partner in trade and the purchase of bread.
But a palace coup on the night of March 11-12, 1801 interrupted plans for a war against England. Paul I was killed as a result of this coup, organized by the highest guard officers, who did not forgive him for the oppression and the will taken from them.
38) Alexander 1 - son of the emperor Paul I and Princess Maria Feodorovna, grandson Catherine 2. He was born on December 23, 1777. From early childhood, he began to live with his grandmother, who wanted to raise a good sovereign out of him. After the death of Catherine, Paul came to the throne. The future emperor had many positive character traits. Alexander was not satisfied with his father's rule and entered into a conspiracy against Paul. On March 11, 1801, the king was killed (despite the protest of his son) and Alexander began to rule. Upon accession to the throne, Alexander 1 promised to follow the political course of Catherine 2.
1 stage of transformation. The beginning of the reign of Alexander 1 was marked by reforms, he wanted to change the political system of Russia, create a constitution that guaranteed rights and freedom to everyone. But Alexander had many opponents. On April 5, 1801, the Permanent Council was created, whose members could challenge the king's decrees. Alexander wanted to free the peasants, but many opposed this. Nevertheless, on February 20, 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued. So in Russia for the first time there was a category of free peasants.
Alexander also carried out an education reform, the essence of which was to create a state education system, headed by the Ministry of Public Education. In addition, an administrative reform was carried out (the reform of the highest authorities) - 8 ministries were established: foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance, military ground forces, naval forces, justice, commerce and public education. The new governing bodies had sole power. Each separate department was controlled by a minister, each minister was subordinate to the Senate.
2nd stage of reforms. Alexander introduces M.M. Speransky, who is entrusted with the development of a new state reform. According to Speransky's project, it is necessary to create a constitutional monarchy in Russia, in which the sovereign's power would be limited by a bicameral body of a parliamentary type. The implementation of this plan began in 1809. By the summer of 1811, the transformation of the ministries was completed. But in connection with the foreign policy of Russia (tensioned relations with France), Speransky's reforms were perceived as anti-state, and in March 1812 he was dismissed.
There was a threat from France. On June 12, 1812, the Patriotic War began. After the expulsion of Napoleon's troops, the authority of Alexander 1 increased.
Post-war reforms. In 1817-18. people close to the emperor were engaged in the phased elimination of serfdom. By the end of 1820, a draft of the “State Charter of the Russian Empire” was prepared and approved by Alexander, but it was not possible to introduce it.
feature domestic policy Alexander 1 was the introduction of the police regime, the creation of military settlements, which later became known as "Arakcheevshchina". Such measures caused dissatisfaction among the broad masses of the population. In 1817, the "Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education" headed by A.N. Golitsyn. In 1822, Emperor Alexander 1 banned secret societies in Russia, including Freemasonry.
The death of Alexander 1 occurred from typhoid fever on December 1, 1825 in Taganrog. During the years of his reign, Alexander 1 did a lot for the country: Russia defeated the French army, a lot of work was done to abolish serfdom, and a reform of the highest authorities was carried out.
40)
The socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century had the following features. The first of these is the unevenness of this development in different regions of the country due to the diversity of their natural, ethnic and local traditions. The second was that in Russia the role of the state in the economic life of the country was great. This role was expressed not only in numerous measures of regulation, guardianship, control and encouragement of industry and trade, in the customs policy that protected domestic entrepreneurs, in providing them with various benefits and subsidies. It was also expressed in the development of the state economy itself. The entire credit system was exclusively state. The third feature was the weak development of private property, primarily land ownership, and as a consequence of this, the weak development of the "third estate". In Russia, it was represented by a narrow layer of the urban bourgeoisie and artisans, partly by intellectual workers, while they were squeezed into the rigid framework of feudal class structures.
Although the new socio-economic processes undermined the feudal-serf system, it continued to be dominant until the fall of serfdom. Serfdom in Russia, due to historical conditions, lasted longer than anywhere else in the civilized world, and took on the most cruel and brutal forms - in practice, it was not much different from slavery. In addition, serfdom could for a long time adapt to new phenomena in the country's economy and even use them to strengthen the material positions of the nobility and the absolutist state. Contradictory processes took place in the feudal economy of Russia: on the one hand, there was a process of decomposition, and before the reform of 1861, a crisis of its foundations; on the other hand, feudal relations continued to spread to the colonized outskirts by planting noble landownership in them. The autocracy, which preserved the feudal structure of society, also played a huge role in maintaining serfdom. Ultimately, all this significantly slowed down the pace of the country's economic development.
In foreign policy, Nicholas I followed the line of Alexander I.
The main idea is the need to fight the "revolutionary infection". This effectively excluded France after the revolution of 1830 from the circle of possible allies of Russia. Forced to constantly deal with eastern problems, Nicholas I hesitated between the policy of "status quo" - maintaining the integrity of the Ottoman Empire - and the policy of dividing the inheritance of Turkey together with other European states
In relation to the annexed and conquered peoples, he pursued a restrained, differentiated policy, taking into account their national, religious and cultural characteristics.
41)
The main reasons for the abolition of serfdom in Russia were the following:
- Firstly, serfdom held back the development of industry, the accumulation of capital was slow. Russia could move into the category of minor states;
- secondly, the peasant farms were ruined, as the landowners increased the corvée in the Black Earth region, and the quitrent peasants went to the factories, the basis of the serf economy, based on forced, extremely inefficient labor of serfs, was undermined;
- thirdly, the crisis of serfdom was one of the main reasons for the defeat of the country in the Crimean War, which showed the military-technical backwardness of Russia. The financial system was undermined; the peasants were ruined because of recruiting sets, the growth of duties. A mass exodus of peasants from the landowners began;
- fourthly, the growth in the number of peasant unrest (in 1860 there were 126 actions of peasants) created a real threat of turning isolated actions into a new "Pugachevshchina";
- fifthly, the realization by the ruling circles that serfdom is a "powder magazine" under the state. From liberal landlords, scientists, even relatives of the king, in particular the younger brother of the Grand Duke Konstantin, proposals began to come to the government, projects for reforming land relations. Alexander II, speaking in 1856 to representatives of the Moscow nobility, said: "If we do not free the peasants from above, then they will free themselves from below";
- sixthly, serfdom, as a form of slavery, was condemned by all sections of Russian society.
The first years of the reign of Alexander II were called "the first Russian thaw". An amnesty was declared for political prisoners: Decembrists, participants in the Polish uprising, Petrashevites, tax arrears of peasants were written off, military settlements were liquidated, censorship was weakened, and free travel abroad was allowed.
But Alexander II and his ministers did not have a well-thought-out reform plan. On the other hand, notes by various public figures containing draft peasant reforms became widespread in society. The “Note on the Liberation of the Peasants” by the historian K. D. Kavelin (1856) caused a special public outcry. He believed that the right to property should not be violated, while carrying out the reform it was necessary to take into account the interests of both peasants and landlords: to release the peasants with land and reward the landowners. The abolition of serfdom, in his opinion, will pave the way for other reforms: judicial, military, the elimination of censorship, etc. The feudal lords met Kavelin's "Note" extremely negatively, he was even fired from the university. But his "Note" largely determined the main provisions of the peasant reform.
The collapse of the serfdom in 1861 dictated the need for further reforms.
In 1864, a zemstvo reform was carried out, during which a system of local self-government bodies was created in the counties and provinces. The county zemstvo assemblies were elected every three years by the population of the county, the provincial assemblies were formed from representatives nominated at the county assemblies. At the same time, the elections to the county zemstvos were organized in such a way as to provide an advantage to the noble landowners. Zemstvos were in charge of the local economy, public education, medicine, and statistics. Zemstvo had no right to raise any problems of a national nature for discussion.
The shortcomings of the zemstvo reform were obvious: the incompleteness of the structure of the zemstvo bodies (the absence of a higher central body), the artificial creation of a numerical advantage for the landed nobility, and the limited scope of activities. Important was the very fact of the emergence in Russia of a system of self-government, fundamentally different from the dominant bureaucratic system. However, the policy of the government in relation to the Zemstvo in the second half of the 1860s - 1870s. was aimed precisely at depriving him of any independence. The governors received the right to refuse to approve any person elected by the Zemstvo; Zemstvo doctors, teachers, and statisticians were expelled from the Zemstvo for the slightest reason. The central local authorities deliberately suppressed any encroachment of zemstvos towards independent activity.
In the same year, 1864, a judicial reform was carried out. The old class courts were abolished. Instead of them, a world court and a crown court were created. The magistrate's court with a simplified procedure was introduced in the counties to deal with cases of minor offenses. More serious cases were dealt with in the crown court, which had two instances: the district court and the judicial chamber. In case of violation of the lawful order of legal proceedings, the decisions of these bodies could be appealed to the Senate.
From the old courts, which conducted business in a purely bureaucratic manner, the new ones differed primarily in that they were public, i.e. open to the public and press. In addition, the judicial procedure was based on an adversarial process, during which the prosecution - the prosecutor - and the defendant's defender - the lawyer - had to find out all the circumstances of the case - interrogating witnesses, analyzing material evidence, etc. The decision on the case was made by jurors, who were elected according to special lists from persons of different classes. Finally, the investigators who prepared the case for trial, and the judges who directed the entire judicial procedure, although they were appointed by the government, were irremovable. But as soon as the new courts showed their best side, the authorities immediately began to subordinate them to the dominant bureaucratic system. Innovations relating to political cases were especially characteristic: the investigation of these cases began to be conducted not by investigators, but by gendarmes; Judicial proceedings were carried out not by jury, but by military courts.
In 1860 - the first half of the 1870s. a series of military reforms was carried out in Russia, the central of which was the introduction in 1874 of universal military service, which replaced the pre-reform conscription. Military service extended to the entire male population over the age of 20, without distinction of class. In peacetime, no more than 25-30% of the total number of recruits were taken to active service by lot. At the same time, the military command and control system was streamlined: Russia was divided into 15 military districts directly subordinate to the Minister of War. Instead of closed military buildings, military gymnasiums were established, close in program to a secondary school and opening the way to any higher educational institution. Those who wished to continue their military education entered specialized cadet schools - artillery, cavalry, military engineering.
On March 1, 1881, in St. Petersburg, not far from Nevsky Prospekt, on the embankment of the Catherine Canal, Emperor Alexander II died from a terrorist bomb. The first bomb thrown by Nikolai Rysakov exploded near the carriage: several Cossack escorts were killed, accompanying guards and several bystanders were wounded.
Nikolay Rysakov
Alexander II got out of the stopped carriage. He coolly looked around the place of the explosion, then approached the captured Rysakov. After listening to the first report on the incident, the emperor, obeying the persuasion of the guards, headed back to the carriage. At that moment, a young man, who had been standing so indifferently, stepped forward, who, approaching the king, threw a bomb at his feet.
Assessing the reign of Catherine II, first of all, it should be said that both domestic and foreign policy of Russia as a whole met the needs of society.
This is what ensured the internal political stability of Catherine's reign.
Consistent, without sharp fluctuations, the policy of the empress impressed the nobility and urban states more. The class courts introduced by her, as well as local governments, were placed under the control of the nobility. Catherine carried out an administrative reform that strengthened the principles of legality in administrative structures. Under Catherine II, public education became qualitatively different: by the end of the 18th century, there were 193 public schools in the country, in which about 14 thousand people studied. This laid the foundation for the creation of a general education school system. In total, by the beginning of the 19th century. There were about 500 different secular educational institutions in the country with 45-48 thousand students and 66 theological seminaries and schools with more than 20 thousand seminarians.
The reign of Catherine II was marked by impressive results in the foreign policy sphere. In all her practical actions, the empress proceeded from the conviction that "the true greatness of the empire lies in being great and powerful not only in one place, but in all places, everywhere to show strength, activity and order." This directly related to the country's foreign policy pursued by it. Here Catherine was very "stubborn": "She will lead her affairs only according to her own understanding" and no one "in the world will force her to do otherwise than as she does." The fruits of her firm and consistent expansionist policy of “defending” the national interests of the Russian Empire were such that in her time, as Count A. A. Bezborodko said not without pride, not a single cannon in Europe could fire without the consent of Russia.
During the years of Catherine's reign, the borders of the empire in the west and south, as a result of the divisions of Poland and the annexation of Crimea, expanded significantly. The country's population increased significantly - from 23.2 million (according to the third revision in 1763) to 37.4 million (according to the fifth revision in 1796). Only on the lands conquered from Turkey and Poland lived about 7 million people. Russia in the 60s became the most populous country in Europe: it accounted for up to 20% of the population of the entire European continent. The population density also increased slightly - from 1.6 people per 1 km2 in 1762 to 2.3 - in 1796 (it lowered the population density of Siberia, where there were 0.1 people per 1 km2 in the second half of the 18th century) .
As for the ethnic composition of the population of Russia, due to territorial expansion, it has become even more colorful. At the same time, in the multinational empire, the number of the state-forming nation was steadily decreasing. If in 1762 the Russians made up a little more than 60%, then in 1795 - already less than 50%. The second largest people were Ukrainians - about 15 and 20%, respectively. According to the demographer W. I. Brooke, the empire included up to 200 large and small peoples, differing in language, religion, way of life and culture.
V. O. Klyuchevsky, describing the general state of the country at the end of the reign of Catherine II, wrote: “The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 considered in its composition 67 battleships and 40 frigates, the amount of state revenue from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, i.е. increased by more than four times, the success of the Baltic foreign trade - in increasing import and export from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of domestic turnover was indicated by the issue of a coin in 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 previous years it was issued only for 97 million. Under Catherine II, for the first time (1769), Russian paper money appeared - banknotes, which was required to cover the costs of the war with Turkey. True, the weight of the financial successes of the government during this period decreased due to the growing issue of banknotes, one ruble of which in 1796 was equal to 68 kopecks. silver, and also due to the fact that a third of the revenue part of the budget was the so-called "drinking fee" - during the reign of Catherine this fee was increased by almost 6 times. But still, it was not possible to make the budget deficit-free, and the amount of state debts left by her exceeded 200 million rubles, which was equal to the income of the last three and a half years of her reign.
The territories acquired in the Northern Black Sea and Sea of Azov regions - virgin fertile steppes, stimulated by the interests of the nobility, were quickly developed, and by the end of the century, about one million people cultivated fertile arable land, were engaged in crafts and trade in the cities of Nikolaev, Kherson, Yekaterinoslav, Mariupol, Sevastopol and others, and also served Russian merchant ships on the Black Sea. All this, first of all, must be credited to G. A. Potemkin, an outstanding statesman.
In the XVIII century. Russia retained the status of an agrarian country. In 1796, the townspeople accounted for 2290 thousand people, or 6.3% of the total population. Moreover, since 1730, there has been an increase in the absolute number of the urban population with a decrease in its share in the total population. In 1780 there were 543 cities in the country, of which 391 were small towns (with a population of 5 thousand people), 146 were medium-sized (from 5 to 25 thousand people), and 6 were large (over 25 thousand). most of it was made up of landlord peasants.
Due to the lack of specific quantitative indicators, it is difficult to judge the real results of agricultural development. It can only be stated that the hopes placed on improving the methods of agriculture and animal husbandry through the promotion of the achievements of agronomic science from the pages of the Proceedings of the Free Economic Society did not come true.
As L.V. Milov shows, in the vast expanses of the Russian Non-Black Earth Region, which had a decisive influence on the development of not only the economy, but also the entire Russian society and state, agriculture in the second half of the 18th century. was unprofitable, their bread in many counties was enough only for 6-8 months a year. Hence the development of various kinds of peasant crafts and the unprecedented growth of otkhodnichestvo: at the end of the century, almost every third adult man in the village, after completing agricultural work, went to work.
In turn, the government, realizing the need to ensure the livelihoods of a huge mass of the peasant population, through legislation encouraged its involvement in commercial and industrial activities.
The Catherine era left a noticeable mark on the industrial development of Russia. Thus, over four decades (1760-1800), iron smelting increased from 3,663,000 poods to 9,908,000 poods, or 2.7 times. Russia has taken the first place in the world according to this indicator. During the same period, the number of domains increased from 62 to 111. The growth in metallurgical production was caused by an increased demand for iron in the world market.
Foreign demand for high-quality Russian linen and canvas led to an increase in the number of sailing and linen manufactories, and especially enterprises in the cotton industry: if in the late 60s. there were 85 and 7 of them, respectively, then in 1799 there were already 318 and 249. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them).
Regarding the labor force, we note that almost exclusively forced labor was used in metallurgy. His share was also high in the cloth production that worked for the treasury, where most of the manufactories were owned by the nobles. Wage labor prevailed in the silk and cotton industries, as well as in the sailing-linen and cloth merchant enterprises founded after 1762.
The growth of the country's economic development also reflects the increased export of goods. If in 1760 the total amount of exports was 13,886 thousand rubles, then in 1790 - 39,643 thousand. Only industrial products for the same years were exported for 2,183 and 5,708 thousand rubles. respectively. Brilliant prospects were promised by the opening of permanent trade through the Russian ports of the Black Sea. Durum wheat has become one of the main export commodities here.
The merits of the Empress in the development of the Russian economy and education can hardly be overestimated. She, however, modestly assessed her role in striving to achieve the “true good”: “Whatever I do for Russia, it will only be a drop in the ocean.”1 But here is the opinion of her contemporary, the memoirist A.
I. Ribopierre: Catherine "as a woman and as a monarch ... is quite worthy of surprise." The glory of her beautiful reign could not be overshadowed by any of the newest monarchs.
In their memoirs, all contemporaries who objectively assess Catherine unanimously admired her intelligence, charm and talents.
Many wrote that she marvelously combined qualities that are rarely found in one person. S. M. Solovyov did not at all absolutize the personal qualities of the empress when he gave a generalized description: “... the extraordinary liveliness of her happy nature, sensitivity to all issues, royal sociability, the desire to study each person, exhaust his mental content, his attitude to a well-known issue, communication with living people, and not with papers, not only with official reports - these precious qualities of Catherine supported her activities, did not allow her to lose heart for a minute, and this opportunity for a moment to descend morally from the height of her position and strengthened her power; difficulties always found Catherine in her place, in a royal position and worthy of this position, and therefore the difficulties were overcome. The depth and insight of thought, extraordinary hard work, constant striving for self-improvement - all these qualities, so important for a political and statesman, were inherent in Catherine II.
Contemporaries of the Catherine’s century emphasize that the empress’s aspirations and actions were based on concern for the good of the state, the path to which, in her view, lay through the triumph of reasonable laws, the enlightenment of society, the education of good morals and law abidance. The main means and reliable guarantee of the success of reform initiatives was seen by Catherine in the unlimited autocratic power of the monarch, who always, everywhere and in everything directs society on the right path.
The theme of favoritism deserves special discussion. Here we only note that favoritism in Russia differed little from its counterparts in other countries with autocratic regimes. But under Catherine there was one significant feature: she always parted with all the favored favorites of the empress kindly, even if they somehow did not live up to her expectations or even betrayed her.
In general, the whole life and work of Catherine II were subject to a wonderful formula: "Consistency in actions." An empress and a person, Catherine II firmly followed the once adopted rules. The main distinguishing feature of her 34-year reign was stability, although, as V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote, 17 years of the struggle "external and internal" accounted for "17 years of rest."
More than two hundred years ago, the reign of the Empress, who was called the "Great" during her lifetime, ended. Thanks to its sensible policy, Russia has firmly taken the place of the world's leading power.
Mysteries of history
Empress Catherine II the Great (1729-1796) ruled the Russian Empire from 1762-1796. She came to the throne as a result of a palace coup. With the support of the guards, she overthrew her unloved and unpopular husband Peter III in the country and marked the beginning of the Catherine era, which is also called the "golden age" of the empire.
Portrait of Empress Catherine II
Artist A. Roslin
The All-Russian autocrat belonged to the noble German princely family of Ascania, known since the 11th century. She was born on April 21, 1729 in the German city of Stettin, in the family of Prince Anhalt-Dornburg. At that time, he was the commandant of the Stettin Castle, and soon received the rank of lieutenant general. Mother Johanna Elisabeth belonged to the German Oldenburg ducal dynasty. The full name of the born baby sounded like Anhalt-Zerbst Sophia Frederick Augustus.
The family did not have a lot of money, so Sophia Frederic Augusta received her education at home. The girl was taught theology, music, dance, history, geography, and also taught French, English and Italian.
The future empress grew up as a playful girl. She spent a lot of time on the city streets, playing with the boys. She was even called "the boy in the skirt". Mother affectionately called her troubled daughter "Fricken".
In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, choosing a bride for her nephew and heir to the throne, Peter, chose Fricken. In 1744, the newlywed girl came with her mother to Russia. She was baptized on June 28, 1744 and named Ekaterina Alekseevna, and the very next day she was engaged to Peter.
From the first months of her life in Russia, Catherine read a lot and developed her mind. She began to diligently learn the Russian language, studied local traditions, the history of the country and Orthodoxy. She was picked up by good teachers who gave their student deep and fundamental knowledge.
The marriage with the heir to the throne took place on August 21, 1745. The bride at that time was 16 years old, and the groom turned 17. They were each other's second cousins. Their family life from the first days failed. There were no love feelings between the newlyweds, and Catherine very quickly moved away from her husband. In 1754, she gave birth to a son, Pavel, and with this the marital duties of the future empress ended.
At the same time, the young woman did not waste her time. She possessed intelligence, tact, cunning, and gradually established useful connections for herself in the high society of St. Petersburg and in the guard. Soon she began to hatch ambitious plans to come to power herself and take the throne. This was greatly facilitated by the fact that the spouse was of little use for state activity.
In 1757, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna. To this, the husband remarked: "God knows what it is! I have already forgotten the last time I slept with her, but she keeps giving birth and giving birth." However, he recognized the girl as his daughter, but the baby died after 2 years. In 1762, the future All-Russian autocrat gave birth to an illegitimate son, Alexei, from a relationship with Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov.
Portrait of a young Ekaterina Alekseevna
On December 25, 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III Fedorovich ascended the Russian throne. After that, the relationship between the spouses, almost completely stopped. The emperor began to live openly with his favorite Vorontsova, and his wife settled at the opposite end of the Winter Palace. Everything went to divorce, and in Russia it meant a monastery for a divorced woman.
Peter III ruled for only six months and during this time managed to turn against himself most of high society. As for Catherine, on the contrary, she gained more and more popularity both among the nobility and among the guards. It all ended with a palace coup on June 28, 1762.
On this ill-fated date, the emperor with his court was in Peterhof. Early in the morning, the wife secretly left for St. Petersburg, where the guardsmen, raised by alarm, were already waiting for her. They greeted the sovereign's wife as an empress and swore allegiance to her. On the same day, Peter III was arrested and meekly signed his abdication. All power passed to his wife, Empress Catherine II.
Great imperial crown
It should immediately be noted that, thanks to her outstanding abilities, the woman who ascended the Russian throne became an outstanding statesman. She was well educated, prudent and able to learn. For many years she corresponded with Voltaire and other prominent figures of the Enlightenment.
Communication with philosophers for the Empress turned out to be extremely important. Many progressive ideas were included in her reform program and turned into laws. It was under this empress that such a concept appeared in Russia as estate rights. The Senate was significantly transformed, the system of local government was changed, and the hetmanship in Ukraine was abolished.
The empire was divided into provinces. They remained unchanged until the revolution of 1917. Riga and Revel provinces appeared in the Baltic states. Siberia was divided into Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Kolyvan provinces.
Church lands were secularized. They went to the state, and almost a million monastic peasants gained freedom. Nobles and townspeople received Letters of Companion who defended their rights. But at the same time, Empress Catherine II remained a full-fledged autocrat and had unlimited state power.
The reign of Catherine II the Great was a time of significant expansion of the Russian Empire in the southern and western directions. This was facilitated not only by the smart and strong-willed empress, but also by the huge opportunities of the state. It had a good army led by such brilliant commanders as Rumyantsev and Suvorov, as well as a flexible diplomacy that skillfully used military victories to enhance the prestige of the empire.
After the first Turkish war (1668-1674), the lands at the mouth of the Don, Dnieper, and Kerch Strait were annexed to the empire. In 1783, the Crimea, the Kuban region and Balta joined. The Second Turkish War (1787-1792) ended with the annexation of coastal lands between the Dniester and the Bug. Thus, the Russian Empire came to the Black Sea.
In the west, according to the first Polish partition, Russia received in 1773 part of Belarus. According to the second Polish partition in 1793, the empire included such regions as Volyn, Minsk and Podolsk. As a result of the third section of 1795-1797, Vilna, Grodno and Kovno Lithuanian provinces, the entire upper reaches of the Pripyat and the western part of Volhynia were acquired.
The Duchy of Courland was also annexed.
Russo-Turkish War
In 1774, Grigory Potemkin became the favorite of Empress Catherine II. This man had very good administrative and military abilities. In the Black Sea region conquered from the Tatars and Turks, he launched a gigantic construction. Such cities as Kherson, Odessa, Sevastopol, Nikolaev were built in the bare steppe.
Tens of thousands of peasants built factories, fortresses, canals, shipyards, planted forests. These new possessions were called Novorossiya. Streams of Russian, Ukrainian and German colonists rushed into it. They began to develop the southern steppes rich in chernozem. The Black Sea Fleet was also built. All these glorious deeds were carried out under the leadership of Potemkin.
But not all was well in the empire. In 1773-1775, a peasant uprising took place under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the Orenburg province, the Urals, Bashkiria, the regions of the Middle and Lower Volga regions and partly Western Siberia. Pugachev declared himself allegedly not dead, but alive and healthy Emperor Peter III. Bashkirs, Kazakhs, workers from the Ural factories, Tatars, serfs went under his banner.
All this mass of people fought for a better lot. However, hundreds of noble families were killed in the process. Moreover, the rebels spared neither children, nor the elderly, nor women. This rebellion had a pronounced social connotation, when the oppressed class rebelled against the exploiting class, and not against the local administrators.
At first, the rebels won one victory after another. They captured Kazan, Saransk, Penza. There was talk that the rebels were going to go to Moscow. But they turned south and captured such cities as Petrovsk and Saratov. The rebels were greeted everywhere with bell ringing, and the priests served prayers. However, the assault on Tsaritsyn failed, and on August 25, 1774, a battle took place at the Solenikova gang. In it, the rebels suffered a crushing defeat. 2 thousand rebels were killed, and 6 thousand were taken prisoner. Pugachev himself, with his closest associates, fled across the Volga.
Among the Cossacks who fled with the impostor were traitors. Near the Bolshoy Uzen River, on September 8, they captured Pugachev and took him to the Yaitsky town. He was brought there on September 15 and underwent the first interrogations. Then the main rebel was transferred to Simbirsk. They carried him in a cage on a 2-wheeled cart, shackled. Pugachev was executed on January 10, 1775 on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow with a huge gathering of people.
Under Empress Catherine II, classicism replaced the baroque in architecture. In St. Petersburg and other cities, majestic buildings built according to the designs of such architects as Jean-Baptiste Vallin-Delamote, Antonio Rinaldi, Matvei Fedorovich Kazakov and others began to be erected. Sculptor Fyodor Shubin created sculptural portraits of his contemporaries, and Etienne Falcone created an equestrian statue of Peter the Great (The Bronze Horseman, but you should know that the monument is made of bronze).
Many state and serf theaters were founded. Their number reached 170. The best European plays and operas were staged on the stages of these cultural centers. It should be noted that the plays were composed by Empress Catherine II herself.
In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens for Girls and the Novodevichy Institute were founded. Schools at the provincial and county level began to open throughout the country. In 1781, the Commercial School for merchants was opened in St. Petersburg.
Document signed by Catherine II
The last years of the reign of Catherine II were characterized by the weakening of her creative abilities and stagnation in public life. The Great French Revolution, which began in 1789, played a significant role in this. She frightened the empress, and she began to show conservatism and intolerance, previously unusual for her, to other people's opinions.
The aging All-Russian autocrat began to increasingly get involved in young favorites. The last in this row was Platon Zubov. It was a young, handsome, but completely empty and conceited dandy. He captured the heart of a mature lady who did not want to put up with her old age.
In general, it should be noted that under Catherine, rather loose morals reigned in the royal environment. In Europe of the 18th century, this was typical for kings, but not for reigning queens. The Austrian Empress Maria Theresa and her daughter Marie Antoinette sharply criticized the debauchery that reigned at the court of the Russian Empress. She was compared with the loving French king Louis XV. By the way, he died, having contracted an infectious disease from one of his many mistresses.
Empress Catherine II died on November 6, 1796 in the Winter Palace of St. Petersburg at the age of 67, having been in power for 34 years. The cause of death was a stroke. Emperor Paul I ascended the Russian throne.
Alexey Starikov
"Internal policy of Catherine II" - The clergy added to the category of bureaucracy. Order of public charity. Elected body of local government from representatives of the nobility, townspeople, state peasants. Subordination of all military units of the province to the governor. Strengthening the personal dependence of serfs. The introduction of a system of urban self-government.
"The domestic policy of Catherine 2" - The purpose of the lesson: The policy of Catherine ii. Decree of 1767 “On the prohibition of peasants to complain about the landowners. The beginning of Catherine's reign was marked by reforms, within the framework of the policy of "Enlightened absolutism". Prove that Catherine really was an "enlightened" empress? Judicial system. Domestic policy of Catherine II.
"The reign of Catherine 2" - Results of the reign: The main policy measures of enlightened absolutism. Either I die or I reign.” The people's war led by E. Pugachev is a black spot in Catherine's politics. Events in the interests of the nobility of Russia. The reign of Catherine II left a very significant imprint in the history of Russia. “I wanted to be Russian, so that the Russians would love me.
"Foreign policy of Catherine 2" - Polish direction. Polish. II period of Catherine's foreign policy 1775-1796. In 1774, after long negotiations, Russia managed to make peace with Turkey. Gdansk, Torun, Poznan. The results of foreign policy activities of Catherine II. The alliance with Austria led Russia to clash with Prussia in the Seven Years' War.
"Catherine the Second" - 4. Letters of grant to the nobility and cities in 1785. Changes in public administration. Educational activity. Conclusion. 5. Decrees of Catherine II on the enslavement of peasants. Count Alexei Orlov is one of the main participants in the conspiracy. Wedding of Catherine II and Peter III. Catherine had enough time to read many books.
"Empress Catherine II" - Wedding of Catherine II and Peter III. Letters of grant to the nobility and cities in 1785. Decrees of Catherine II on the enslavement of the peasants. You slew the wise man with your mind, Seeing you, I would have lost my mind. August 21, 1745. The right to buy villages is confirmed to the nobles. The nobles are allowed to have factories and plants in the villages. 29th.
