At the beginning of the 18th century, a completely new literary trend was born in Europe, which, first of all, focuses on the feelings and emotions of a person. Only at the end of the century it reaches Russia, but, unfortunately, it resonates with a small number of writers here ... All this is about the sentimentalism of the 18th century, and if you are interested in this topic, then continue reading.
Let's start with the definition of this literary trend, which determined new principles for highlighting the image and character of a person. What is "sentimentalism" in literature and art? The term comes from the French word "sentiment", which means "feeling". It means a direction in culture, where the artists of the word, notes and brushes emphasize the emotions and feelings of the characters. The time frame of the period: for Europe - the 20s of the XVIII - the 80s of the XVIII; For Russia, this is the end of the 18th century - the beginning of the 19th century.
For sentimentalism specifically in literature, the following definition is characteristic: it is a literary movement that came after classicism, in which the cult of the soul predominates.
The history of sentimentalism began in England. It was there that the first poems of James Thomson (1700-1748) were written. His works "Winter", "Spring", "Summer" and "Autumn", which were later combined into one collection, described simple rural life. Quiet, peaceful everyday life, incredible landscapes and fascinating moments from the life of peasants - all this is revealed to readers. The main idea of the author is to show how good life is away from all the hustle and bustle of the city.
Some time later, another English poet, Thomas Gray (1716-1771), also tried to interest the reader in landscape poems. In order not to be like Thomson, he added poor, sad and melancholic characters that people should empathize with.
But not all poets and writers loved nature so much. Samuel Richarson (1689-1761) was the first symbolist to describe only the lives and feelings of his characters. No scenery!
Two favorite themes for England - love and nature - were combined in his work "Sentimental Journey" by Laurence Sterne (1713-1768).
Then sentimentalism "migrated" to France. The main representatives were Abbé Prevost (1697-1763) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). The intense intrigue of love drinking in the works of "Manon Lescaut" and "Julia, or New Eloise" forced all French women to read these touching and sensual novels.
This period of sentimentalism in Europe ends. Then it starts in Russia, but we will talk about this later.
The object of our research is sometimes confused with other literary movements, between which it has become a kind of transitional link. So what are the differences?
Differences between sentimentalism and romanticism:
Differences between sentimentalism and classicism:
The main features of sentimentalism are usually attributed to:
Genres representing this literary movement:
It is customary to distinguish two opposite directions within the framework of sentimentalism:
Features of sentimentalism in literature:
Signs of sentimentalism:
Of course, the main theme of all works is love. But, for example, in the work of Alexander Radishchev "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" (1790), the key theme is the people and their lives. In Schiller's drama "Deceit and Love", the author speaks out against the arbitrariness of the authorities and class prejudices. That is, the theme of the direction can be the most serious one.
Unlike representatives of other literary movements, sentimentalist writers "included" in the life of their heroes. They denied the principle of "objective" discourse.
The essence of sentimentalism is to show the ordinary everyday life of people and their sincere feelings. All this takes place against the backdrop of nature, which complements the picture of events. The main task of the author is to make readers feel all the emotions along with the characters and empathize with them.
We have already discussed the characteristic features of this trend in the literature earlier. Now it's time for painting.
Sentimentalism in painting is most vividly represented in our country. First of all, he is associated with one of the most famous artists, Vladimir Borovikovsky (1757-1825). Portraits predominate in his work. When depicting a female image, the artist tried to show her natural beauty and rich inner world. The most famous works are: “Lizonka and Dashenka”, “Portrait of M.I. Lopukhina" and "Portrait of E.N. Arsenyeva". Also worth noting is Nikolai Ivanovich Argunov, who was known for his portraits of the Sheremetevs. In addition to paintings, Russian sentimentalists also excelled in the technique of John Flaxaman, namely his painting on dishes. The most famous is the “Green Frog Service”, which can be seen in the St. Petersburg Hermitage.
Of the foreign artists, only three are known - Richard Brompton (he worked for 3 years in St. in costumed portraits).
Sentimentalism appeared in Russia around 1780-1790. This phenomenon gained popularity thanks to the translation of various Western works, among which were "The Sufferings of Young Werther" by Johann Wolfgang Goethe, the parable-story "Paul and Virginie" by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, "Julia, or New Eloise" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and novels by Samuel Richardson.
"Letters of a Russian Traveler" - it was from this work of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766 - 1826) that the period of sentimentalism in Russian literature began. But then the story was written, which became the most significant in the entire history of the existence of this movement. We are talking about "" (1792) Karamzin. In this work, all the emotions, the innermost movements of the souls of the characters are felt. The reader empathizes with them throughout the book. The success of "Poor Liza" inspired Russian writers to create similar works, but less successful (for example, "Unfortunate Margarita" and "The Story of Poor Mary" by Gavriil Petrovich Kamenev (1773-1803)).
We can also refer to sentimentalism the earlier work of Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky (1783 - 1852), namely his ballad "". Later, he also wrote the story "Maryina Grove" in the style of Karamzin.
Alexander Radishchev is the most controversial sentimentalist. His affiliation to this movement is still disputed. The genre and style of the work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” speak in favor of his involvement in the movement. The author often used exclamations and tearful digressions. For example, the exclamation was heard from the pages as a refrain: “Oh, hard-hearted landowner!”.
The year 1820 is called the end of sentimentalism in our country and the birth of a new trend - romanticism.
The peculiarity of Russian sentimentalism is that each work tried to teach the reader something. It served as a mentor. Within the framework of the direction, a real psychologism was born, which was not there before. This era can still be called the "age of exceptional reading", since only spiritual literature could guide a person on the true path and help him understand his inner world.
All sentimentalists portrayed ordinary people, not "citizens". Before us always appears a subtle, sincere, natural nature, which does not hesitate to show its real feelings. The author always considers it from the side of the inner world, testing it for strength with a test of love. He never puts her in any framework, but allows her to develop and grow spiritually.
The main meaning of any sentimental work was and will be only a person.
A simple, understandable and emotionally colored language is the basis of the style of sentimentalism. It is also characterized by voluminous lyrical digressions with appeals and exclamations of the author, where he indicates his position and the moral of the work. Almost every text uses exclamation marks, diminutive forms of words, vernacular, expressive vocabulary. Thus, the literary language at this stage approaches the language of the people, making reading accessible to a wider audience. For our country, this meant that the art of the word was reaching a new level. Recognition goes to secular prose, written lightly and artistically, and not to the ponderous and insipid works of imitators, translators, or fanatics.
Interesting? Save it on your wall!In the second half of the 18th century, portraiture reached its peak. At this time, the largest painters F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky and V. L. Borovikovsky created a brilliant gallery of portraits of contemporaries, works that glorify the beauty and nobility of human aspirations. The Russian portrait of that time happily combines great depth and significance in the depiction of the human person. Artists recreated the image of a person using various pictorial means: exquisite color shades, complementary colors and reflections, the richest system of multi-layered overlaying of paints, transparent glazes, subtle and virtuoso use of the texture of a colorful surface. All this determined the significant place of the domestic portrait in contemporary European painting.
F. S. Rokotov(1735 or 1736-1808). Among the largest portrait painters was Fedor Stepanovich Rokotov. While still a young man, he became widely known as a skilled and original painter. His creative heritage is significant, but in the 19th century the artist was almost forgotten, and only at the beginning of the next century did the painstaking collection of the facts of his biography and work begin. Many events in Rokotov's life remain mysterious.
Already in 1760, Rokotov was a teacher at the Academy of Arts. After 5 years, he was awarded the title of academician. After such a brilliantly launched career, he left the Academy of Arts and moved to Moscow. There began a new, creatively very fruitful period of his life.
Rokotov painted mainly chamber portraits. His works reflected the desire of the best, enlightened part of the Russian nobility, characteristic of that time, to follow high moral standards. The artist liked to depict a person without a parade environment, not posing.
Even in the early works of Rokotov - portraits of Grand Duke Paul, girls E. Yusupova and others are affected by the ability not only to correctly convey the similarity, but also to endow the image with great spirituality.
Rokotov's work flourished in subsequent years, when the artist enriched and complicated the color even more, achieved in his portraits the transfer of an internally significant, elevated image. In later portraits, Rokotov emphasizes the intellectuality and spirituality of his models.
V portrait of V. I. Maykov(late 1760-1778) Rokotov appears in all the brilliance and originality of his talent: the artist's painting becomes especially temperamental here, the brush is free, the color, built on the opposition of red and green, acquires sonority. In the image of the poet, famous for the comic poem "The Ombre Player", the illusion of living life is created not by a petty transfer of appearance, but by the brightness and power of revealing characteristic features.
V portrait of V. E. Novosiltseva(1780) Rokotov finds the same measure of ideality as in the image of Maikov. In the guise of this young woman, the artist's idea of beauty was personified. No less characteristic, Rokotov, are portraits of "Unknown in pink"(1770s), N. E. Struisky (1772), E. N. Orlova(1779) and E. V. Santi(1785, ill. 67). Artistry and attractive force of spirituality captivates portrait of V. N. Surovtseva(second half of the 1780s, ill. 66), one of the most expressive canvases of the artist, a charming image of femininity.
Rokotov usually focuses all his attention on faces. People in his portraits almost always smile a little, often intently, sometimes mysteriously looking at the viewer. They are united by something in common, some kind of deep humanity and spiritual warmth. It is as if the portrayed people are hiding something, hiding something. They seem to be immersed in the mysterious picturesque environment of the background.
The works of the last years of Rokotov's life are almost unknown to us, as well as the fate of the artist in old age.
Sentimentalism in the painting of V. L. Borovikovsky.
V. L. Borovikovsky(1757-1825). The third outstanding master of the portrait genre at the end of the 18th century was Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky. He was born in Mirgorod in Ukraine and received his initial professional skills from his father, an artist. In the icons painted by Borovikovsky in his youth, his great talent is felt. In St. Petersburg, Borovikovsky communicated with representatives of the progressively thinking Russian intelligentsia of the circle of G. R. Derzhavin, became close to Levitsky, and possibly studied with him. The portrait of E. N. Arsenyeva, created in 1796 (ill. 70), is a work of high skill. In addition, it outlines a new view of man. The artist depicted the woman being portrayed among nature, in a cozy corner of the garden, against the backdrop of greenery, with an apple in her hand. If Arsenyeva is depicted provocatively smiling, charming in her happy youth, then M. I. Lopukhina (1797) is full of slight sadness and poetic reverie. She captivates with gentle melancholy, amazing softness and inner harmony. In the portraits, Borovikovsky sang the ability for lofty feelings, heartfelt feelings, and in this respect he is close to representatives of the Russian literary movement. sentimentalism, for example, N. M. Karamzin. This also manifests itself in image of Catherine II, depicted against the backdrop of the peaceful nature of Tsarskoye Selo Park (1794), and in portrait of a Torzhkov peasant woman Christinya(c. 1795), an ideal image, beautiful in its "simplicity", in group portrait of the Gagarin sisters(1802). In the latter, the artist included the everyday environment, connected the figures with action, developing a type of paired image, anticipating the search for Russian artists of the first half of the 19th century. In female portraits, the artist strove for a special poeticization of the model, for a peculiarly laid-back and at the same time elegant, slightly idealized image of her.
Borovikovsky's male portraits are more diverse and objective in terms of characteristics. Depicted are more restrained in expressing feelings. This portraits of G. R. Derzhavin(c. 1795), D. P. Troshchinsky(1799), F. A. Borovsky (1799, ill. 71).
A special group consists of ceremonial portraits of the artist, distinguished by their monumentality and solemnity. Among them, the most indicative for the master himself and the general direction of Russian art at the beginning of the 19th century portrait of A. B. Kurakin(c. 1801). The full-length figure of a lordly, arrogant nobleman effectively stands out against the backdrop of a column and a hanging heavy curtain.
In his work, Borovikovsky affirmed the same lofty humanistic ideal that is inherent in Russian art throughout the 18th century. The portraits made by the artist during the period of rapprochement with sentimentalism and later reflect the characteristic features of the classicism style.
Like most Russian painters of the 18th century, Borovikovsky is stingy and restrained in expressing his personal attitude towards the model in the ceremonial portrait.
Borovikovsky's art is not limited to commissioned portraits of the nobility. The artist captured the images of people from the people. In addition to the above-mentioned portrait of Christinha, he painted an allegorical image of winter in the form of an old peasant warming his hands by the fire.
In the last years of his life, Borovikovsky did a lot of religious painting.
Along with the works of Rokotov and Levitsky, the legacy of Borovikovsky completes a rich and meaningful page in the history of the Russian portrait genre, which achieved significant success by the end of the 18th century.
The concept of sentimentalism is used in literature, psychology, even architecture and design. The word sentiment was borrowed in Russian. Even understanding it or having a distant idea, not many can explain what sentimentalism is. This direction was popular for a long time, as it affected the main feelings and emotions of people. What is it and what distinguishing features does it have? Let's try to understand in more detail.
The prerequisites for the emergence of the direction is a philosophical trend called sensationalism. Its representatives said that the whole world around reflects the feelings of a person. Only using emotions can you understand and realize life, feel it.
Sentimentalists took the feelings of a person as a basis, put him in the first place. They believe that from the moment of birth, virtue and a set of emotions are inherent in everyone, which allows him to feel the world. Affecting the basic instincts, the direction gained popularity and over time replaced classicism, which put the mind in the first place, and considered emotions to be secondary. Subtle lyrics reflected all the illusory nature of earthly existence.
Sentimentalism entered Russia much later, when the works of Rousseau were translated into Russian. The work "Poor Lisa" by Radishchev literally turned the public's attitude towards "sensitive" prose and marked the beginning of a change in public consciousness.
The very understanding of sentimentalism literally means sensitive, touching, tender. It is derived from the adjective used to describe sympathy in English. In literature, it began to be used around the end of the 18th century (if we talk about Russia, and for England it was the first years of the same century). This one of the important directions began to gain popularity when people from the poor classes began to exalt their political and social role. The strong stratification of society led to the fact that the middle class disappeared, and mutual hostility formed between the upper stratum (aristocracy, clergy) and the poor.
Since they were not on the same level, thus, the lower strata of society expressed their position regarding changes in society. In sentimentalism, everything is turned upside down and thinking, logic and common sense are replaced by pity, goodwill, feelings, exaltation of the foundations of democracy and equality. Social obligations are placed below personal instincts.
In literature, sentimentalism has a slightly ideological significance; it is characterized by sincerity and sympathy for people who are lower in status: the poor, the poor, the common people. In the works of sentimentalist writers, sharp criticism of social injustice and cruelty towards the lower class is noticeable. Distinctive features of sentimentalism from other areas are:
The creations of writers - sentimentalists are distinguished by the fact that the main characters in almost all cases belong to the lower class and are commoners. The whole plot is filled with their feelings, experiences, sensations. Sentimentalism showed the importance of democracy, the equality of all classes, which was important for Russia at that time.
Sentimentalism is easy to distinguish from the rest by a number of characteristics that are unique to it.
For example, in any work of this direction, you can notice the following:
Most often, the works were written in the genre of a story, a personal diary, a letter or a novel. Dreaminess, enthusiastic feelings, tearfulness are clearly expressed. Bright representatives of this trend are: Richardson S, who wrote "Clarissa" and "Pamella", Stern L. "The Life and Opinions of Tristramy Shandy", Goethe I.V. "The suffering of young Werther", in Russia it was Radishchev A. "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", Karamzin M "Poor Lisa".
The concept of sentimentalism is also used in psychology. With its help, specialists characterize the state of the psyche when a person is excessively susceptible to feelings. Not defining it as a pathology or deviation, but only as a characteristic of the attitude to certain events. It is often noted that tearfulness can occur for any reason. The characteristics of a sentimental person are as follows:
Whether sentimentality is a positive quality or a negative one, no one can say with accuracy.
The direction of sentimentalism did not pass without a trace in architecture, reflected in park buildings. It originated in Great Britain in the 18th century. The main focus is on the interests of commoners, people from the lower class. This trend was progressive for its time and reflected economic and social processes.
Tired of the noise and dust of big cities, people want to live closer to nature, create mysterious compositions of arbors with wild plants. Sentimentalism calls for a return to the natural state, to hide in the "grottoes of solitude."
The Russian estate of the late 18th century is considered a classic symbiosis of classicism and sentimentalism. A house with a mandatory park area or garden, as an opportunity for a comfortable existence.
Sentimentalism is a broad concept, so it is used in different areas of life. It is difficult to give a complete description of it, like every direction, it is multifaceted. Many poets tried to describe it in their works, artists tried to reflect it in their paintings, architects in their buildings.
At the end of the 18th century, Russian nobles experienced two major historical events - the peasant uprising led by Pugachev and the French bourgeois revolution. Political oppression from above and physical destruction from below - these were the realities that confronted the Russian nobles. Under these conditions, the former values of the enlightened nobility underwent profound changes.
A new philosophy is born in the depths of Russian enlightenment. Rationalists, who believed that reason was the main engine of progress, tried to change the world through the introduction of enlightened concepts, but at the same time they forgot about a specific person, his living feelings. The thought arose that it was necessary to enlighten the soul, to make it cordial, responsive to other people's pain, other people's suffering and other people's worries.
N. M. Karamzin and his supporters argued that the path to the happiness of people and the common good is in the education of feelings. Love and tenderness, as if pouring from person to person, turn into kindness and mercy. “Tears shed by readers,” wrote Karamzin, “always flow from love for good and nourish it.”
On this basis, the literature of sentimentalism is born.
Sentimentalism- a literary movement that aimed to awaken sensitivity in a person. Sentimentalism turned to the description of a person, his feelings, compassion for his neighbor, helping him, sharing his bitterness and sorrow, can experience a sense of satisfaction.
So, sentimentalism is a literary trend, where the cult of rationalism, reason is replaced by the cult of sensuality, feelings. Sentimentalism arises in England in the 30s of the XVIII century in poetry as a search for new forms, ideas in art. Sentimentalism reaches its peak in England (Richardson's novels, in particular, "Clarissa Harlow", Lawrence Stern's novel "Sentimental Journey", Thomas Gray's elegies, for example "Country Cemetery"), in France (J. J. Rousseau), in Germany ( J. W. Goethe, the Sturm und Drang movement) in the 60s of the 18th century.
The main features of sentimentalism as a literary movement:
1) Image of nature.
2) Attention to the inner world of a person (psychologism).
3) The most important theme of sentimentalism is the theme of death.
4) Ignoring the environment, circumstances are given secondary importance; reliance only on the soul of a simple person, on his inner world, feelings that are always beautiful from the very beginning.
5) The main genres of sentimentalism: elegy, psychological drama, psychological novel, diary, journey, psychological story.
Sentimentalism(French sentimentalisme, from English sentimental, French sentiment - feeling) - the mood in Western European and Russian culture and the corresponding literary direction. The works written in this genre are based on the feelings of the reader. In Europe, it existed from the 20s to the 80s of the 18th century, in Russia - from the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century.
If classicism is reason, duty, then sentimentalism is something lighter, these are the feelings of a person, his experiences.
The main theme of sentimentalism- love.
The main features of sentimentalism:
The main genres of sentimentalism:
Ideological basis- protest against the corruption of aristocratic society
The main property of sentimentalism- the desire to present the human personality in the movement of the soul, thoughts, feelings, the disclosure of the inner world of man through the state of nature
At the heart of the aesthetics of sentimentalism- imitation of nature
Features of Russian sentimentalism:
Sentimentalists:
Socio-historical foundations of Russian romanticism
But the main source of Russian romanticism was not literature, but life. Romanticism as a pan-European phenomenon was associated with huge upheavals caused by the revolutionary transition from one social formation to another - from feudalism to capitalism. But in Russia, this general pattern manifests itself in a peculiar way, reflecting the national characteristics of the historical and literary process. If in Western Europe romanticism arises after the bourgeois-democratic revolution as a kind of expression of dissatisfaction with its results on the part of various social strata, then in Russia the romantic direction originates in that historical period when the country was just moving towards the revolutionary clash of new, capitalist in essence began with the feudal-serf system. This was due to the originality in the ratio of progressive and regressive tendencies in Russian romanticism in comparison with Western European. In the West, romanticism, according to K. Marx, arises as "the first reaction to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment associated with it." Marx considers it natural that under these conditions everything was seen "in a medieval, romantic light." Hence the significant development in Western European literatures of reactionary-romantic trends with their assertion of an isolated personality, a "disappointed" hero, medieval antiquity, an illusory supersensible world, etc. Progressive romantics had to fight against such trends.
Russian romanticism, generated by the impending socio-historical turning point in the development of Russia, became mainly an expression of new, anti-feudal, emancipatory tendencies in public life and worldview. This determined the progressive significance for Russian literature of the romantic trend as a whole at an early stage of its formation. However, Russian romanticism was not free from deep internal contradictions, which with the passage of time were revealed more and more clearly. Romanticism reflected the transitional, unstable state of the socio-political structure, the maturing of profound changes in all areas of life. In the ideological atmosphere of the era, new trends are felt, new ideas are born. But there is still no clarity, the old resists the new, the new is mixed with the old. All this informs early Russian romanticism of its ideological and artistic originality. In an effort to understand the main thing in romanticism, M. Gorky defines it as “a complex and always more or less obscure reflection of all shades, feelings and moods that embrace society in transitional eras, but its main note is the expectation of something new, anxiety before the new, hasty , a nervous desire to know this new.
Romanticism(fr. romanticism, from medieval fr. romantic, novel) is a trend in art that was formed within the general literary movement at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. in Germany. It has become widespread in all countries of Europe and America. The highest peak of romanticism falls on the first quarter of the 19th century.
french word romanticism goes back to Spanish romance (in the Middle Ages, Spanish romances were called so, and then a knightly romance), English romantic which evolved in the 18th century. v romanticism and then meaning "strange", "fantastic", "picturesque". At the beginning of the XIX century. romanticism becomes the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism.
A vivid and meaningful description of romanticism was given by Turgenev in a review of the translation of Goethe's Faust, published in Otechestvennye Zapiski in 1845. Turgenev proceeds from a comparison of the romantic era with the youthful age of a person, just as antiquity is correlated with childhood, and the Renaissance can be correlated with the adolescence of the human race. And this ratio is, of course, significant. “Every person,” writes Turgenev, “in his youth experienced an era of “genius”, enthusiastic arrogance, friendly gatherings and circles ... He becomes the center of the world around him; he (not himself conscious of his good-natured egoism) indulges in nothing; he makes everything surrender to himself; he lives with his heart, but with a lonely, his own, not someone else's heart, even in love, of which he dreams so much; he is a romantic - romanticism is nothing but the apotheosis of personality. He is ready to talk about society, about social questions, about science; but society, like science, exists for him - he is not for them.
Turgenev believes that the Romantic era began in Germany during Sturm und Drang and that Faust was its most significant artistic expression. “Faust,” he writes, “from the beginning to the end of the tragedy takes care of himself alone. The last word of everything earthly for Goethe (as well as for Kant and Fichte) was the human self... For Faust, society does not exist, the human race does not exist; he is completely immersed in himself; he expects salvation from himself alone. From this point of view, Goethe's tragedy is to us the most resolute, the sharpest expression of romanticism, although this name came into vogue much later.
Entering into the antithesis "classicism - romanticism", the direction assumed the opposition of the classicist requirement of rules to romantic freedom from rules. This understanding of romanticism persists to this day, but, as the literary critic J. Mann writes, romanticism is “not just a denial of the “rules”, but following the “rules” are more complex and whimsical.”
Center of the Romantic Art System- personality, and its main conflict - personality and society. The decisive prerequisite for the development of romanticism was the events of the French Revolution. The emergence of romanticism is associated with the anti-enlightenment movement, the causes of which lie in disappointment in civilization, in social, industrial, political and scientific progress, which resulted in new contrasts and contradictions, leveling and spiritual devastation of the individual.
Enlightenment preached the new society as the most "natural" and "reasonable". The best minds of Europe substantiated and foreshadowed this society of the future, but reality turned out to be beyond the control of “reason”, the future was unpredictable, irrational, and the modern social order began to threaten human nature and personal freedom. The rejection of this society, the protest against lack of spirituality and selfishness is already reflected in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism. Romanticism expresses this rejection most sharply. Romanticism also opposed the Enlightenment on a verbal level: the language of romantic works, striving to be natural, "simple", accessible to all readers, was something opposite to the classics with its noble, "sublime" themes, typical, for example, for classical tragedy.
Among the later Western European romantics, pessimism in relation to society acquires cosmic proportions, becomes the "disease of the century." The heroes of many romantic works (F. R. Chateaubriand, A. de Musset, J. Byron, A. de Vigny, A. Lamartine, G. Heine, etc.) are characterized by moods of hopelessness, despair, which acquire a universal character. Perfection is lost forever, the world is ruled by evil, ancient chaos is resurrecting. The theme of the "terrible world", characteristic of all romantic literature, was most clearly embodied in the so-called "black genre" (in the pre-romantic "Gothic novel" - A. Radcliffe, C. Maturin, in the "drama of rock", or "tragedy of rock", - Z. Werner, G. Kleist, F. Grillparzer), as well as in the works of J. Byron, C. Brentano, E.T.A. Hoffmann, E. Poe and N. Hawthorne.
At the same time, romanticism is based on ideas that challenge the "terrible world" - primarily the ideas of freedom. The disappointment of romanticism is a disappointment in reality, but progress and civilization are only one side of it. The rejection of this side, the lack of faith in the possibilities of civilization provide another path, the path to the ideal, to the eternal, to the absolute. This path must resolve all contradictions, completely change life. This is the path to perfection, “to the goal, the explanation of which must be sought on the other side of the visible” (A. De Vigny). For some romantics, the world is dominated by incomprehensible and mysterious forces that must be obeyed and not tried to change fate (the poets of the "lake school", Chateaubriand, V.A. Zhukovsky). For others, "world evil" provoked a protest, demanded revenge, struggle. (J. Byron, P.B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mitskevich, early A.S. Pushkin). The common thing was that they all saw in man a single entity, the task of which is not at all reduced to solving ordinary problems. On the contrary, without denying everyday life, the romantics sought to unravel the mystery of human existence, turning to nature, trusting their religious and poetic feelings.
Romantics turned to different historical eras, they were attracted by their originality, attracted by exotic and mysterious countries and circumstances. Interest in history became one of the enduring conquests of the artistic system of romanticism. It expressed itself in the creation of the genre of the historical novel (F. Cooper, A. de Vigny, V. Hugo), whose founder is considered to be W. Scott, and in general the novel, which acquired a leading position in the era under consideration. Romantics accurately and accurately reproduce historical details, the background, the color of a particular era, but romantic characters are given outside of history, they, as a rule, are above circumstances and do not depend on them. At the same time, romantics perceived the novel as a means of comprehending history, and from history they went to penetrate into the secrets of psychology, and, accordingly, modernity. Interest in history was also reflected in the works of historians of the French romantic school (O. Thierry, F. Guizot, F.O. Meunier).
Exactly in the era of Romanticism, the discovery of the culture of the Middle Ages, and the admiration for antiquity, characteristic of the past era, also does not weaken at the end of the XVIII - beginning. 19th century The diversity of national, historical, individual features also had a philosophical meaning: the wealth of a single world whole consists of the totality of these individual features, and the study of the history of each people separately makes it possible to trace an uninterrupted life through new generations following one after another.
The era of Romanticism was marked by the flourishing of literature, one of the distinguishing features of which was a passion for social and political problems. Trying to comprehend the role of man in ongoing historical events, romantic writers gravitated towards accuracy, concreteness, and reliability. At the same time, the action of their works often unfolds in an environment unusual for a European - for example, in the East and America, or, for Russians, in the Caucasus or in the Crimea. Thus, romantic poets are predominantly lyricists and poets of nature, and therefore in their work (however, just like in many prose writers), landscape occupies a significant place - first of all, the sea, mountains, sky, stormy elements, with which the hero is associated complex relationships. Nature can be akin to the passionate nature of a romantic hero, but it can also resist him, turn out to be a hostile force with which he is forced to fight.
Sentimentalism is a trend in Western European art that originated in the second half of the 18th century. The name comes from the Latin sentiment - "feeling". Sentimentalism in painting differed from other trends in that it proclaimed the life of a “little” person in the village as the main object, reflecting also the result of his thoughts in solitude. Civilized urban society, built on the triumph of reason, thus faded into the background.
The current of sentimentalism embraced such genres of art as literature and painting.
The named trend in art arose in the second half of the 18th century in England. James Thomson (England) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (France) are considered to be its main ideologists in literature, who stood at the foundations. The development of the direction was also reflected in the appearance of sentimentalism in painting.
Sentimentalist artists in their paintings showed the imperfection of modern urban civilization, based only on a cold mind and not attaching great importance to the sensory perception of the world. During the heyday of this trend, it was believed that truth could be achieved not in the process of logical thinking, but with the help of emotional perception of the world around.
The emergence of sentimentalism was also an opposition to the ideas of the Enlightenment and classicism. The thoughts of the enlighteners of the previous period were completely revised and rethought.
Sentimentalism as a style in art lasted until the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, becoming widespread in Western Europe. At the dawn of its heyday, the direction appeared in Russia and was embodied in the works of Russian artists. At the beginning of the next century, romanticism became the successor of sentimentalism.
With the advent of sentimentalism in the painting of the 18th century, new subjects for paintings began to appear. Artists began to give preference to the simplicity of compositions on canvas, trying to convey not only high skill, but also lively emotions with their work. Canvases with landscapes showed the tranquility, serenity of nature, and portraits reflected the naturalness of the people depicted. At the same time, the paintings of the era of sentimentalism very often convey excessive moralizing, increased and feigned sensitivity of their heroes.
Painting created by artists in the described direction reflects reality, repeatedly enhanced through the prism of emotions and feelings: it is the emotional component in the paintings that is paramount. Representatives of this trend believed that the main task of art is to evoke strong emotions in the observer, to make them empathize and sympathize with the main character of the picture. This is how, according to sentimentalists, reality is perceived: with the help of emotions, not thoughts and reason.
On the one hand, this approach has advantages, but it is also not without disadvantages. The paintings of some artists cause the observer to be rejected by their excessive emotionality, sugaryness and the desire to forcefully evoke a feeling of pity.
Despite the possible shortcomings, the features of the era of sentimentalism in painting make it possible to see the inner life of a simple person, his conflicting emotions and constant experiences. That is why during the 18th century, portraits became the most popular type of genre for paintings. The heroes were depicted on them without any additional interior elements and objects.
The most famous representatives of this genre were such artists as P. Babin and A. Mordvinov. The characters portrayed by them have a pacified state of mind that is well readable by the viewer, although without excessive psychologism.
Another representative of sentimentalism, I. Argunov, painted pictures with a different vision. The people on his canvases are more realistic and far from idealized. The main object of attention is the faces, while other parts of the body, for example, hands, may not be drawn at all.
At the same time, Argunov in his portraits always singled out the leading color as a separate spot for greater expressiveness. One of the prominent representatives of the trend was also V. Borovikovsky, who painted his paintings in accordance with the typology of English portrait painters.
Very often, sentimentalists chose children as heroes of paintings. They were portrayed as mythological characters in order to convey the sincere spontaneity and character traits characteristic of children.
One of the main representatives of sentimentalism in painting was the French artist Jean-Baptiste Greuze. His works are distinguished by the simulated emotionality of the characters, as well as excessive moralizing. The artist's favorite subject was a portrait of a girl suffering from dead birds. In order to emphasize the instructive role of the plot, Grez accompanied his paintings with explanatory comments.
Other representatives of sentimentalism in painting are S. Delon, T. Jones, R. Wilson. In their works, the main features of this art direction are also observed.
The French artist Jean-Baptiste Chardin also performed some of his work in the named style, while supplementing the existing typology with his own innovations. Thus, he introduced elements of social motives into the work of the direction.
His work "Prayer before dinner", in addition to the features of sentimentalism, has the features of the rococo style and carries an instructive overtones. She shows the importance of female education for the formation of elevated emotions in children. With the help of the picture, the artist aims to evoke various feelings in the observer, which is typical for the sentimental style of painting.
But, in addition, the canvas is replete with a large number of small details, bright and numerous colors, and there is also a complex composition available. Everything depicted is distinguished by a special grace: the interior of the room, the poses of the characters, the clothes. All of the above are important elements of the Rococo style.
This style came to Russia belatedly along with the popularity of antique cameos, which came into fashion thanks to the Empress Josephine. In Russia, artists combined sentimentalism with another popular trend - neoclassicism, thus forming a new style - Russian classicism in the form of romanticism. Representatives of this direction were V. Borovikovsky, I. Argunov and A. Venetsianov.
Sentimentalism asserted the need to consider the inner world of a person, the value of each individual. This became achievable due to the fact that artists began to show a person in an intimate setting, when he is left alone with his experiences and emotions.
Russian sentimentalists in their paintings placed the central figure of the hero in the picture of the landscape. Thus, man remained in the company of nature alone, where the opportunity arose to manifest the most natural emotional state.
In Russian painting, sentimentalism almost did not manifest itself in its pure form, usually combined with other popular trends.
One of the most famous works, one way or another made in the style of sentimentalism, is the painting by V. Borovitsky “Portrait of Maria Lopukhina”. It depicts a young woman in a dress leaning on a railing. In the background you can see a landscape with birches and cornflowers. The heroine's face expresses thoughtfulness, trust in the environment and, at the same time, in the viewer. This work is rightfully considered the most outstanding object of Russian painting art. At the same time, there are clear features of sentimentalism in the style.
Another well-known representative of sentimentalism in Russian painting can be called A. Venetsianov with his paintings on pastoral themes: "Reapers", "Sleeping Shepherd", etc. They depict peaceful peasants who have found harmony in unity with Russian nature.
Sentimentalism in painting was not distinguished by a single style and integrity, but gave rise to some features by which you can easily recognize the works of this direction. These include smooth transitions, refinement of lines, airiness of plots, a palette of colors with a predominance of pastel shades.
Sentimentalism laid the foundation for the fashion for medallions with portraits, ivory items, and fine painting. As already mentioned, in the 19th century, thanks to the Empress Josephine, antique cameos became widespread.
In the 18th century, the direction in painting, sentimentalism, marked the beginning of the spread of such a style as romanticism. It became a logical continuation of the previous direction, but it also had opposite features. Romanticism is distinguished by high religiosity and sublime spirituality, while sentimentalism promoted the self-sufficiency of inner experiences and the richness of the inner world of one person.
Thus, the era of sentimentalism in painting and in other forms of art ended with the advent of a new style.
