associationism
One of the main directions of world psychological thought, explaining the dynamics of mental processes by the principle of association.
For the first time, his postulates were formulated by Aristotle, who put forward the idea that images that arise without an apparent external cause are the product of association.
Behaviorism
A trend in American psychology of the 20th century that denies consciousness as an object scientific research and reducing the psyche to various forms of behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the body to environmental stimuli.
Gestalt psychology
A direction in Western psychology that arose in Germany in the first third of the 20th century. and put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of integral structures (gestalts), primary in relation to their components. She opposed the principle put forward by structural psychology (W. Wundt, Z. B. Titchener, and others) of dividing consciousness into elements and building complex mental phenomena out of them according to the laws of association or creative synthesis.
Freudianism, Neo-Freudianism
Freudism is a direction named after the Austrian psychologist 3. Freud, which explains the development and structure of the personality by irrational, mental factors antagonistic to consciousness and uses the technique of psychotherapy based on these ideas.
The core of Freudianism forms the idea of the eternal secret war between the unconscious mental forces hidden in the depths of the individual (the main of which is sexual desire - libido) and the need to survive in a social environment hostile to this individual.
Prohibitions on the part of the latter (creating "censorship" of consciousness), causing mental trauma, suppress the energy of unconscious drives, which breaks through on detours in the form of neurotic symptoms, dreams, erroneous actions (slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue), forgetting the unpleasant, etc.
Neo-Freudianism is a direction in psychology, whose supporters are trying to overcome the biologism of classical Freudianism and introduce its main provisions into the social context.
Among the most famous representatives of neo-Freudianism are K. Horney, E. Fromm, G. S. Sullivan (USA).
With visible attention to the factors of social life, neo-Freudianism considers the individual with his unconscious drives initially independent of society and opposed to it; at the same time, society is regarded as a source of "universal alienation" and is recognized as hostile to the fundamental tendencies in the development of the individual.
Humanistic psychology
A direction in Western (mainly American) psychology, recognizing personality as its main subject as a unique holistic system, which is not something given in advance, but “ open opportunity» self-actualization inherent only to man.
Basic provisions:
man must be studied in his totality; each person is unique, so the analysis of individual cases is no less justified than statistical generalizations; a person is open to the world, a person's experiences of the world and himself in the world are the main psychological reality;
human life should be considered as a single process of becoming and being of a person;
a person is endowed with potentialities for continuous development and self-realization, which are part of his nature; a person has a certain degree of freedom from external determination due to the meanings and values that guide him in his choice;
Man is an active, intentional creative being.
In preparing this work, materials from the site http://www.studentu.ru were used.
And they can be reduced to them. Therefore, sociology as a science “about the actions of masses of people and about the various phenomena that make up social life” has psychology as its basis. The psychological direction in sociology, as a branch of knowledge, was not homogeneous; at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, various concepts were formed. Psychologism in sociology interested many scientists. But they all had one thing in common...
... (1910); Reflexology (1918); Collective Reflexology (1921); General Foundations of Human Reflexology (1923); Brain and activity (1928). II The main attention of representatives of the psychological direction was directed to the study of the psychological mechanism and social forms behavior of an individual or a group. The most prominent representative of this trend is Evgeniy Valentinovich De...
According to Kareev, the mental life of a person follows from his "mental nature" and is conditioned by it. This dependence is manifested in the activities of people and in their relationships. At the same time, their useful and harmful actions, as well as "just and unjust social phenomena" require a psychological explanation. Like De Roberti, Kareev believed that the mental interactions of people lie in ...
His ideas and programs outlined by him in the study of these areas of psychology are still relevant and have not exhausted themselves almost sixty years after his death. 2. Basic ideas and facts of Gestalt psychology 2.1 Research of the process of cognition. Works by M. Wertheimer, W. Koehler, K. Koffka One of the leading representatives of this trend was Max Wertheimer. After graduating from university, he...
Since matter and consciousness exist, exist, the questions arose with the necessity in philosophy: “What is the foundation of the world - matter or consciousness?” and "What is the main (primary) in cognition - feelings or mind?" Depending on how the first question was solved, the following main directions have developed in philosophy : materialism; idealism; dualism. Depending on how the second question was solved, such main directions were formed in philosophy as: empiricism and rationalism
MATERIALISM(so-called "Line of Democritus") is a direction in philosophy, whose supporters believed that matter is the beginning, the ultimate foundation of the world, and consciousness is a product of matter. Matter really exists; matter exists independently of consciousness (that is, it exists regardless of whether anyone thinks about it or not); matter is an independent substance - does not need its existence in anything other than itself; matter exists and develops according to its internal laws. Consciousness is a property of such matter as the human brain. Consciousness is not an independent substance; cannot exist without matter, being its property. Famous materialist philosophers: Thales, Democritus, Epicurus, Bacon, Locke, Diderot, Marx and many others. Philosophers representing the direction of materialism, based on science(first of all, the natural sciences: physics, mathematics, chemistry, etc.), many positions of materialist philosophers are logically provable.
Vulgar materialism. In philosophical materialism stands out special direction – vulgar materialism. Its representatives (Buchner, Vogt, Moleschott) are overly fond of the study of matter from the point of view of physics, mathematics and chemistry, its mechanical side; consciousness is considered the same matter as the gray matter of the human brain.
IDEALISM ( so-called "Plato line")- a direction in philosophy, whose supporters believed that the idea (non-material) is the fundamental beginning of the world, and the material world is a derivative of the idea (non-material).
In idealism exist two separate directions: objective idealism and subjective idealism.
objective idealism.(Plato, Leibniz, Hegel, etc.) Founder - Plato. According to the concept of objective idealism: the idea is the beginning of all things and phenomena of the material world. Plato divides the world into two worlds - the “world of ideas” and the “world of things”. "The world of things" - the material world is created by the "world of ideas". Each single thing is the embodiment of an idea: for example, a live, real horse is the embodiment of the idea of a horse, a real, material house is the embodiment of the idea of a house, real kind and beautiful people are the embodiment of the ideas of goodness and beauty, etc.). The “world of ideas” always exists, forever, never changes; only the “world of things” changes. This "world of ideas" exists outside the consciousness of man, independently of man.
Subjective idealism. (Berkeley, Hume and others). - Ideas exist only in the human mind. The ideas of material things also exist only in the mind of man. Outside the consciousness of an individual, ideas and material things do not exist.
Idealism as a philosophical direction dominated in ancient greece, in the Middle Ages. It is now widely distributed in the USA, Germany, and other countries of Western Europe.
DUALISM(from lat. dualis - dual) - a philosophical direction that allows the simultaneous existence of two independent first principles of the world (substances) - material (possesses the property of extension) and spiritual (possesses the property of thinking). The material substance produces material things, and the spiritual substance produces ideas. In a person, two substances are combined at the same time - both material and spiritual. Matter and spirit always exist and complement each other.
EMPIRICISM(from the Greek empiria - experience) - in philosophy it also represents a philosophical direction and method in knowledge. Founder of empiricism- English philosopher 17 in eka F. Bacon. Its most important representatives in the 17-18 centuries. there were also T. Hobbes, J. Locke, E. Condillac. Representatives of empiricism are convinced that only sensory experience is the only source of knowledge, only the senses give a person reliable knowledge. human mind only generalizes the material obtained by the senses from experience. The scientific method of empiricism - induction. We receive true knowledge only from experience, i.e. when we go from the particular to the general. For example, experience shows that many separate metals (private) melt, therefore all metals have the property of melting (general). The ultimate goal of knowledge is the domination of man over nature. The characteristic tendency of empiricism to regard as more reliable knowledge that is received through the senses has found expression in various forms positivism of the 19th and 20th centuries. The positivists drew a sharp line between theoretical and empirical knowledge. For example, representatives of logical positivism considered only the so-called protocol sentences to be reliable, which are a concentrated expression of sensory experience: “A cow is a herbivore”, “A square has equal angles”, “All metals melt”, “The whole is greater than its part” and etc. All genuine scientific theories and proposals can be reduced (reduced) to protocol proposals. Everything that cannot be reduced to protocol sentences, i.e. to sensory perception, logical positivists considered devoid of cognitive meaning and simply meaningless.
Empiricism is the opposite of rationalism.
Rationalism(from lat. ratio - mind) - philosophical direction and method in knowledge. Founder of rationalism French philosopher 17 in eka R. Descartes. Its most important representatives in the 17th century. there were also B. Spinoza and G.V. Leibniz. Rationalists believe that true knowledge can only be obtained from the mind without the influence of experience and sensations. Scientific method of rationalism - deduction. We receive true knowledge only from the mind, i.e. when we go from the general (ideas) to the particular (to experimental, sensual facts). There are truths that are obvious to the mind (axioms) and do not need to be proven through experience, for example, God, number, will, body, soul, “nothing comes from nothing”, “it is impossible to be and not to be at the same time”, etc. d. Truths of this kind make it possible to cognize the empirical, sensory world. The mind expands and deepens a person's knowledge of the world around him. Rationalism is the opposite of empiricism, irrationalism, philosophy of life, etc.
Irrationalism(from lat. irrationalis - unreasonable) - a special direction and method in philosophy. Key Representatives- Nietzsche, Schopenhauer. Representatives of irrationalism deny the possibility of rational (reasonable) knowledge of reality. Irrationalism puts forward irrational aspects to the fore cognitive abilities human: instinct, intuition, feeling, will, mystical "illumination", imagination, love, the unconscious, etc. From their point of view, life itself, the world have an illogical character, because the mind is powerless to know them.
AGNOSTICISM(from the Greek a - a negative prefix, gnosis - knowledge, agnostos - inaccessible to knowledge). Representatives of agnosticism are convinced that the world is unknowable. Key Representatives- philosophers of the New Age (17th century) - D. Hume and I. Kant. I.Kant recognizes that the outside world exists independently of us - "thing in itself". The "thing in itself" is the source and cause of our sensations, but that is all we can say about it. Sensations and concepts give us ideas - "things for us." But the question of whether our ideas about the objects of the external world are similar to these objects themselves has no solution. Let's say we eat cherries. We see the scarlet color of cherries, we feel its juiciness, softness, sweet and sour taste. Our mind unites all these subjective experiences of ours into an integral object called “cherry”. But does this “cherry” we have constructed look like a real object that gave rise to the corresponding sensations in us? To answer this question, one would have to compare our image of a cherry with reality. However a person is not able to see the world by itself, he sees it only through the prism of his sensuality. Therefore, man can never know what the world is like in itself. After Kant, every philosopher already draws a line between our idea of the world and the external world itself. One of the major representatives of agnosticism in philosophy 20 in. was K. popper. This philosopher was convinced that when cognizing the world, a person does not receive true knowledge, but only discovers lies in his views. The progress of knowledge is expressed not in the discovery and accumulation of truths, but in the exposure and rejection of delusions.
The merit of agnosticism before philosophy lies in the fact that it refuted the position of "naive realism" - the belief that the external world is exactly as we imagine it to be.
The idealistic direction of Russian psychological thought at the beginning of the 20th century.
Development psychological theory in Russia, the struggle in it between materialism and idealism took on special forms. The originality of Russian psychological thought, which not only creatively generalized the achievements of world psychology, but also created new ways in general development science, is connected with the history of advanced Russian social thought, classical philosophical materialism and advanced natural science.
In the development of scientific psychological thought in Russia special place belongs to M. V. Lomonosov. Of course, before Lomonosov, philosophical thought also existed in Russia, developing in a psychological direction. At the same time, the original paths of the formation of Russian advanced psychological thought are especially closely connected with Lomonosov. In his works on rhetoric and physics, Lomonosov develops a materialistic understanding of sensations and ideas. Back in 1744 ᴦ. in the ʼʼConcise Guide to Rhetoricʼʼ Lomonosov argued that the content of ideas are the things of nature. The position of the primacy of matter and the dependence of mental phenomena on it was consistently developed by Lomonosov in his physical works, especially in his theory of light (1756), where, by the way, an interesting attempt was made to explain the physiological mechanism of color perception.
From the point of view of Lomonosov, it is necessary to distinguish between cognitive (mental) processes and the mental qualities of a person. The latter arise from the correlation of mental faculties and passions. Lomonosov's analysis of passions and their expression in speech is of great historical interest. The sources of passions and their form of expression are actions and suffering, defined by Lomonosov as ʼʼevery change that one thing produces into anotherʼʼ. Such an understanding of the psyche is already at odds with the psychological concept of X. Wolf, which dominated philosophy and psychology at that time and from which Lomonosov may have started earlier.
From the middle of the 18th century, in connection with the emergence of bourgeois relations within the framework of feudal Russia, along with the theological church ideology and idealistic rationalism, which from the time of Peter the Great penetrated into Russia from Western Europe, the influence of French enlighteners and materialists began to affect Russia.
This influence first manifests itself directly in the psychological views of Ya. P. Kozelsky (ʼʼPhilosophical Suggestionsʼʼ, 1768) and indirectly manifests itself in the psychological concept of A. N. Radishchev, completely independent and original in resolving the psychogenetic problem, in establishing the leading role of speech in the mental development of a person. This concept is stated by Radishchev mainly in his main philosophical treatise ʼʼOn Man, His Mortality and Immortalityʼʼ. The psychological views of Radishchev were integral part his philosophical, materialistic and humanistic outlook.
AT early XIX century, when the more radical part of the nobility, the noble revolutionaries joined the ranks of the Decembrists, the more moderate liberal nobility began to oppose the reactionary official ideology (represented by the ʼʼBible Societyʼʼ, Golitsyn, Photius) ideas of German idealistic philosophy. Shellin had a particularly significant influence on the psychology of this time. The first prominent exponents of Schellingian ideas are D.M. Vellansky (ʼʼBiological study of nature in its creative and created quality, containing the main outlines of general physiologyʼʼ, 1812) and V.F. Odoevsky (ʼʼPsychological notesʼʼ). The works of P. S. Avsœnev, X. A. Ekeblad (ʼʼExperience of reviewing the biological and psychological study of the abilities of the human spiritʼʼ, 1872) and others are imbued with the spirit of late Schellingism.
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These works interpret psychology in terms of general anthropology, emphasize the "integrity" of a human being, its connection with the entire universe, and put forward ideas of development, but not in a natural science, but in a metaphysical interpretation. Concrete facts that reveal the real process of development are obscured or simply replaced by metaphysical reflections, often rather shaky.
A. I. Galich must be separated from the Russian Schellingians. Philosophically, Galich himself was clearly influenced by Schelling. At the same time, in the system of his psychological views, presented in the remarkable work ʼʼThe Picture of a Manʼʼ (1834), Galich acts as an original scientist and develops advanced ideas for his time, linking the transition from consciousness to self-consciousness with the ʼʼpractical side of the spiritʼʼ, i.e., human activity in social life.
ʼʼI know that I live only by revealing my activity (even if it was about external irritations), - writes Galich, - only by showing my life for myself and for others, only by bringing to disgrace temporary individual creations of my medial power, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ everywhere and remains the basis of the latter, constituting the totality or sum of my historical beingʼʼ. ʼʼLet thought make a distinction between external and internal, in practice we really both exist and know about ourselves as much as we manage to show what we are and what we could beʼʼ. ʼʼThe revealed consciousness of my life historically gives me ways to recognize my face with other individuals. I take myself and everyone else for a special, definite being, and I welcome a brother ʼʼ in it. In connection with this emphasis on activity, ʼʼ practical side spiritʼʼ, in Galich's ʼʼPicture of a Manʼʼ problems of a personal motivational plan are clearly put forward - motivations, inclinations, passions, etc. Associated with the historical existence of the people, the spiritual development of the individual, according to Galich, most significantly affects the moral feelings and actions of a person. Hence, a special place in his system is occupied by critical ethics, which caused extreme dissatisfaction with the official science of Nikolaev Russia.
Of decisive importance for the development of advanced Russian psychology of the XIX century. had the psychological views of the great Russian materialist philosophers - A. I. Herzen, V. G. Belinsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, and especially N. G. Chernyshevsky.
Herzen's idea of ʼʼdeedʼʼ as an essential factor in the spiritual development of a person retains all its fundamental significance to this day, just as it retains acute relevance in relation to modern psychology of his general requirementʼʼpromotingʼʼ science.
Belinsky, in the second period of his creative development, also expressed the demand for advanced social thought - to give the psychology of the individual, and not just individual abilities.
In contrast to the dualistic idealistic theories that oppose the mental and the physical, Dobrolyubov defends their unity.
“Looking at a person as one whole, inseparable being,” writes Dobrolyubov, “we eliminate those innumerable contradictions that scholastics find between bodily and mental activity ... now no one doubts that all efforts to carry out the dividing line between spiritual and bodily functions are in vain and that human science cannot achieve this. Without material discovery, we cannot know about the existence of inner activity, and material discovery takes place in the body.
Philosophical ideas of Chernyshevsky, his materialism and psycho-physiological monism find a brilliant concrete implementation in I. M. Sechenov. His famous ʼʼReflexes of the brainʼʼ (appeared in 1863 ᴦ. in the form of journal articles in the ʼʼMedical Bulletinʼʼ, and in 1866 ᴦ. published as a separate book) determined new paths in the physiology of the brain, having, as you know, a significant influence on I. P. Pavlov.
Sechenov also laid the foundations of the psychophysiology of the sense organs in Russia and outlined in it, in particular in the theory of vision, its connection with touch, etc., new, original paths. At the same time, it would be completely wrong to consider Sechenov only as a physiologist, who, as such, had a more or less significant influence on psychology with his physiological works.
I. M. Sechenov was also the largest Russian psychologist, and it can be stated with certainty that not only Sechenov the physiologist influenced Sechenov the psychologist, but also vice versa: Sechenov’s studies in psychology from early youth had a direct and, moreover, a very significant impact on his physiological studies, in particular those that determined his concept of brain reflexes. He himself directly testifies to this (see his work: Autobiographical Notes. M., 1907).
In his psychological concept, Sechenov put forward the study of mental processes in the laws of their course as the main subject of psychology and especially emphasized the importance genetic method. In his struggle against the traditional idealistic psychology of consciousness, Sechenov (in his wonderful article "Who and How to Develop Psychology") set before scientific thought a task that retains its significance to this day. Sechenov saw the main mistake of the idealist psychologists in that they are, as he puts it, "separators of the psychic", i.e., in the fact that they tear the psychic out of connection natural phenomena in which they are actually included, and, turning the psychic into a separate, self-contained existence, outwardly oppose body and soul. In his ʼʼReflexes of the brainʼʼ, which I. P. Pavlov spoke of as the ʼʼgenius rise of Sechenov’s thoughtʼʼ, and in his other psychological works, with which ʼʼReflexes of the brainʼʼ are connected by an organic commonality of a single concept, Sechenov tried to solve this the means at its disposal at the time. He rejects the identification of the mental with the conscious and considers the "conscious element" as the middle member of a single - reflex - process that begins in objective reality with an external impulse and ends with an act. Overcoming the "separation" of the psychic is, in essence, the very task that Soviet psychology is now solving with new means that have now been opened up to it.
With his ideas and research, Sechenov had a direct influence on the development of experimental psychological research in Russia, which brought Russian psychology closer to advanced Russian natural science. Sechenov's ideas largely determined the formation of Russian experimental psychology in the 80s-90s. the last century.
In the same period when the activities of Chernyshevsky and Sechenov, revealing the physiological prerequisites of psychology, are unfolding - in the 60s. - A. A. Potebnya puts forward in Russian science the position of the unity of consciousness and language and sets the history of language the task of "demonstrating in practice the participation of the word in the formation of a consistent series of systems embracing the relationship of the individual to nature" * Applying the historical principle not only to external linguistic forms, but also to the internal structure of languages, Potebnya makes the first and only brilliant attempt, using a huge historical material, to outline the main stages in the development of the linguistic consciousness of the Russian people. Based on a subtle analysis of the vast linguistic material, Potebnya seeks to reveal the historical formation and change different forms thinking - mythological, scientific (ʼʼprosaicʼʼ) and poetic. For Potebnya, unlike G. V. F. Hegel, poetic thinking is not the lowest level of thinking, but a peculiar and specific form of cognition in relation to "prosaic" and scientific thinking, but no less significant than the latter. Potebnya also emphasizes the role of the word in the development of self-consciousness.
In the psychology developed in the middle of the last century, the tendencies of empirical psychology are also reflected. At the center of this trend, oriented primarily towards English empirical psychology, is the principle of associationism. For the first time, the influence of empiricism was reflected in the work of O. M. Novitsky ʼʼA Guide to Experimental Psychologyʼʼ (1840), but in a certain course this direction took shape only in the 60s-70s. Its main representative is M. M. Troitsky (ʼʼScience of the Spiritʼʼ). He tries to reduce all spiritual life to associations. In his ʼʼGerman Psychology in the Current Centuryʼʼ (1867) he criticizes German metaphysical idealistic psychology. V. A. Snegirev (ʼʼPsychologyʼʼ, 1873) also recognizes the law of association as the basic law of mental life and adjoins English empirical psychology, but his position is eclectic: he tries to reconcile his associationism with a variety of psychological trends and points of view.
The conductors of idealistic tendencies in psychology in this period are such people as K. D. Kavelin and N. N. Strakhov. Οʜᴎ enter into a struggle against the materialistic direction of physiological psychology (the mechanistic representatives of which, it is true, were inclined to reduce psychology to physiology).
A special place in the psychological literature of this period is occupied by the main work of one of the largest representatives of Russian pedagogical thought - ʼʼMan as an object of educationʼʼ (1868-1869) K. D. Ushinsky.
Ushinsky, widely using in his work the material accumulated by the world psychological science of his time, managed to subjugate the entire given material attitudes deeply characteristic of the original paths of both his own and generally advanced Russian social thought. The first, most important of these attitudes is connected with the ʼʼanthropologicalʼʼ approach to the study of psychology. This approach to the problems of psychology meant consideration of all aspects of the human psyche in a holistic-personal, and not narrowly functional, plan; mental processes act not as mere ʼʼmechanismsʼʼ (which is what experimental functional psychology in the West began to interpret them for the most part), but as a human activity, thanks to which they could receive a truly meaningful characterization from Ushinsky. The second essential attitude, specific to Ushinsky, was that anthropology for him acted as a pedagogical anthropology. This means that a person was considered by him not as a biological individual with unchanging properties predetermined by his organization, but as an object of education, during which he is formed and develops; his development is included in the process of his education. In the course of this last, the growing person acts as a subject, and not only as an object. educational activities teachers. Ushinsky, with exceptional clarity and consistency, passes through all his psychological and pedagogical constructions the idea that is especially dear to him about work, about purposeful activity as the main beginning of the formation of both character and mind.
If in the works of I. M. Sechenov the role physiological foundations and materialistic attitudes in the development of psychology, then in the work of Ushinsky, published almost simultaneously with the works of Sechenov, the role of pedagogical practice for the system of psychological knowledge first appeared.
In case the 30th rᴦ. were noted by us as the time of the appearance of the first secular works on psychology, then the 60s. should be singled out as an era when the prerequisites for a truly scientific development of it are created. This period is marked by a great growth of psychological literature, the publication of which in the 60s. rises sharply.
Experimental psychology began to develop in Russia in the 80s-90s. of the last century, when a number of experimental psychological laboratories arose: V. M. Bekhterev (in Kazan), V. F. Chizh (in Yuriev), A. A. Tokarsky (in Moscow), as well as A. O. Kovalevsky, V. M. Sikorsky and others; in subsequent years the laboratories of N. A. Bernshtein, G. I. Rossolimo, and others are expanding their work.
An important role in the development of world experimental psychology was played by the best representatives Russian psychological science. This applies primarily to one of the largest and most advanced representatives of experimental psychology in Russia, N. N. Lange, the author of the excellent course ʼʼPsychologyʼʼ. His Psychological researchʼʼ, published in 1893 ᴦ., are devoted to experimental study: one is perception, and the other is voluntary attention.
These studies have attracted wide attention in the world of psychological science; of these, the first, on perception, was published in the report of the London International Congress of Experimental Psychology; the study of attention evoked special responses from the largest psychologists in various countries - W. Wundt, W. James, G. Munsterberg, and others.
N. N. Lange created one of the first experimental psychology laboratories in Russia at Odessa University. Following this, similar laboratories were organized in St. Petersburg (A. P. Nechaev) and Kyiv, then (in 1911) in Moscow, the first Russian Institute of Experimental Psychology at Moscow University was created. G. I. Chelpanov, who headed this institute, released in 1915 ᴦ. the first Russian general guide to experimental psychology (ʼʼIntroduction to experimental psychologyʼʼ).
During the same period - the end of the XIX and the beginning of the XX century. - a number of experimental works appeared in Russian psychological literature devoted to special psychological problems: the work of N. Ya. Grot on emotions (with the main provisions of which, expressed in an article published in France, some of the theses of one of the largest French psychologists, T. Ribot, echo), V. M. Sikorsky (his research on mental performance found numerous followers in Western Europe), A. F. Lazursky, one of basic work which on the classification of personality was published by E. Meiman (in the series ʼʼ Padagogishe Monographienʼʼ published under his editorship) and left a noticeable mark in subsequent foreign theories on personality psychology.
Remaining on the positions of experimental scientific research, Lazursky is looking for new methodological ways to study the complex manifestations of personality. In an effort to combine the advantages of experiment with systematic observation, he outlines his original method of ʼʼnatural experimentʼʼ.
Along with general psychology, other branches of psychological knowledge are beginning to develop - pathopsychology (N. A. Bernstein, V. P. Serbsky), the psychology of the blind (A. A. Krogius), the psychology of the child (represented by a number of works by D. M. Troshin, V. M. Sikorsky and others), zoopsychology, the founder of which in Russia is V.A. Vagner (see his two-volume ʼʼBiological Foundations of Comparative Psychology [Biopsychology]ʼʼ, 1913). Wagner is one of the creators of biological zoopsychology, which is built on the basis of Darwinism.
In the same period, special branches of psychological knowledge begin to develop more intensively, the development of which was dictated by the needs of practice - medical and pedagogical.
Our clinicians (beginning with S. S. Korsakov, I. R. Tarkhanov, V. M. Bekhterev, V. F. Chizh, and others) were among the first to use psychology to help the clinic, and K. D. Ushinsky, considering in his remarkable treatise a person as an object of education, lays the foundations of a true educational psychology much deeper, more fundamentally correct and, moreover, earlier than it was done, for example, by E. Meiman.
An attempt to expand psychology in the pedagogical aspect, using psychological knowledge in the interests of education and upbringing, does after Ushinsky back in the late 70s. P. F. Kapterev. Kapterev cultivates pedagogical psychology, to which he refers the basics general psychology(in a sense close to English empirical psychology), child psychology and the doctrine of types. The doctrine of types - the typology of children, in particular schoolchildren - is being developed by P.F. Lesgaft (ʼʼSchool typesʼʼ, ʼʼFamily education of the child and its meaningʼʼ, 1890).
The development of pedagogical psychology in the future receives a wider scope and development in a direction approaching Mayman's ʼʼexperimental pedagogyʼʼ on the basis of the development of experimental psychology. It finds expression in the works of congresses on pedagogical psychology and experimental pedagogy (1906-1916).
In 1906 ᴦ. the first All-Russian Congress on Educational Psychology is going to be held in 1909 ᴦ. - the second (see ʼʼProceedingsʼʼ of the 1st and 2nd congresses), in 1910 ᴦ. going to the first All-Russian Congress on experimental pedagogy, in 1913 ᴦ. - the second and in 1916 ᴦ. - third (see ʼʼProceedingsʼʼ of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd congresses).
The idealistic direction of Russian psychological thought at the beginning of the 20th century. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Idealistic direction of Russian psychological thought at the beginning of the 20th century." 2017, 2018.
To begin with, let us define the range of development of this problem and briefly list the scientists.
Scientists who dealt with the problem of will: L. S. Vygotsky, V. I. Selivanov, E. P. Ilyin, V.A. Betz, S. Ya. Rubinshtein, B. V. Zeigarnik, T. Ribot and others.
Definition
Will is a certain ability of the individual, which consists in the conscious regulation of behavior and activity in order to fulfill the tasks set.
The development of ideas of will since ancient times is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. "Development of ideas about will"
Volitional act is divorced from activity. Here are a few points of view in this direction.
Within the framework of this direction, behavior is reduced to the same patterns of execution, without taking into account the complexity nervous system one organism or another. A diagram of this behavior is shown below.
Figure 2. "Behavior in line with behaviorism"
For a reflexologist, volitional action is reduced to a simple sum of reflexes, for a representative of behavioral psychology - to a set of reactions: a conscious volitional process falls out of volitional action.
In contrast to the interpretation of the will prevailing in the psychological literature as a phenomenon to be explained either in the physiological or in the subjective-psychological plan, Blondel put forward the position that the will is a product of sociality. But his attempt to give a psychology of will that takes into account the role social relations in its formation, proceeds from the general premises of the sociological school of Durkheim and reflects in itself all its installations. The social in it is reduced to the ideological, supposedly independent of real, material public relations; at the same time, the social is opposed to the natural, the public - to the personal.
Regulatory approach
General conclusions on the regulative approach to understand the will:
Motivational Approach
Motivational-activity theory of V. A. Ivannikov. According to V. A. Ivannikov, the will can be considered as "a person's ability to conscious intentional activity or to self-determination through work in the internal plan, providing additional motivation (inhibition) to action based on an arbitrary form of motivation". Volitional behavior itself is realized when there is a lack of a general motivation for a specific action.
Aspect of choice
Photographer Andrea Effulge
Idealistic philosophy is understood as all directions and concepts within this science, tracing idealism in itself as a basis. Therefore, in order to understand the essence of these trends and concepts in philosophy, one should get acquainted with the very concept of idealism, as well as its consequences.
Idealism (from the Greek idea - idea) is a fundamental principle in science, asserting the primacy of the immaterial (ideal) over the material, if narrowly. As well as the primacy of the incorporeal, insensible, subjective, evaluative and non-spatial in any phenomena and processes over the material, which is characterized by objectivity, corporality, sensual sensation without evaluation and the presence of space, if we consider the concept broadly. That is, it is largely true that idealism is an alternative to materialism, and in cosmogonic (the origin of the Universe) questions, these concepts are often considered as antagonists. Thus, it is easy to understand that idealistic philosophy fully includes all the properties of idealism.
It is important to understand that the term idealism should not be confused with the concept of idealist, since the latter is derived from the term "ideal", which in turn is not a synonym for the concept of "idea".
Idealistic philosophy itself is divided into two directions, diverging in the fundamental consequence, despite the agreement in other opinions. These directions are: objective and subjective idealism, that is, subjectively and objectively idealistic philosophy. The first, the objective direction, declares that the immaterial, that is, the ideal, exists outside and independently of any consciousness, while the second, the subjective direction, asserts that it can exist only in any consciousness. ideal reality. Here it is important to understand that the "ideal" reality is not a synonym for "perfect", understanding the real meaning of the terms and scientific perception differs from the philistine.
One of the first to deal with the problems of idealistic philosophy, who is known to history, was Plato. With this thinker, idealism was presented in a dualistic bundle of perception of the world by the mind. The first part is the perception and awareness of the true essence of things - their ideas, which are eternal and accurate, and the second part is the feeling of things in their material form, which is multifaceted, deceptive and temporary.
We will omit the opinion of various religious thinkers - supporters of religious idealistic philosophy, as obviously anti-scientific or extra-scientific, where, for example, an idea was understood as an eternal and accurate image of any thing, phenomenon or process, as a true idea in the mind of God. Among such supporters of the idealistic trend in philosophy was George Berkeley, who called the supporters of materialism at best vulgar atheists, and at worst even sectarians of atheism.
A new word in idealistic philosophy, however, as in many areas of this science, was said by Immanuel Kant, who, with his transcendent, limited the knowledge of the idea and ideal consciousness, as a phenomenon that starts with difficulty. That is, Kant drew direct parallels of his concept with formal idealism.
Kant, as the founder of German classical philosophy, motivated the emergence of other types of idealism, which were formulated by the thinkers of his era. For example, the absolute idealism of Hegel, the objective of Schelling, and the subjective of Fichte. The key differences between these views within idealistic philosophy is that Kant asserted the completeness and completeness of the world in itself, but the unknowability of some of its parts for the mind. Fichte called the reality (environment) outside the mind of the subject limited for the latter and therefore provoking the mind to reflect and organize the inner (ideal) world. Schelling believed that the boundary between the ideal (mind) and the material is the identity of any object and subject, that is, the secret fundamental principle. And Hegel, with his absolute idealism, abolished material reality, relegating it only to the role of stating the ideal, which was revealed in the first. That is, the idealistic philosophy of Hegel assigned to idealism the role of an absolute process, where the immanent statement of any ideas proceeds dialectically. Yes, this subject is very difficult to understand, but for its deep consideration it is necessary to become closely acquainted with the works of each of the representatives of idealist philosophy. For obvious reasons, I cannot provide the last part of the article to you, reader.
Georg Hegel not only made a significant contribution to the improvement of philosophy, but also formulated new type idealism is absolute. The main criticism of absoluteness in idealistic philosophy lies in its separation from reality, that is, it is good in the theoretical and abstract construction of all known conditions and quantities, but it is difficult to apply in practice in being and life. sentient being- a person. In the latter, the limit of the research of thought science was discovered, where it ceased to be practically useful; at least at this stage in the evolution of the mind.
Modern idealistic philosophy has marked itself by the fact that it no longer considers idealism as an antagonist of materialism, but only as its alternative, at the same time, opposing the former to realism. In general, there is a steady tendency for idealistic philosophy to disguise its fundamental principle, based on idealism, behind ambiguous or neutral concepts, names and phrases. But despite this, the ideological modality of any concepts and trends in modern philosophy, not related to materialism or realism, is indisputable.
