The main task of the country's economy in the first half of the XVII century. was to overcome the consequences of the "great Moscow ruin". This problem was hampered by the following factors:
heavy human and territorial losses suffered by the country as a result of "distemper";
low soil fertility of the Non-Black Earth region, where until the middle of the XVII century. housed the bulk of the population;
the strengthening of serfdom, which did not create an interest among the peasants in the results of their labor (landowners with an increase in their needs confiscated not only surplus, but also part of the necessary product, increasing corvée and dues);
the consumer character of the peasant economy, which was formed under the influence of the Orthodox community tradition, which focused on the simple satisfaction of needs, and not on the expansion of production in order to generate income and enrichment;
increased tax burden.
Agriculture
Since the end of the 10s - the beginning of the 20s, after the Stolbovsky peace and the Deulinsky truce, the expulsion of the gangs of looters-interventionists, the end of the actions of the insurgent detachments, the Russian people begin to restore normal economic life. Zamoskovny Krai comes to life - the center of European Russia, counties around the Russian capital, in the west and north-west, north-east and east. The Russian peasant is advancing to the outskirts - south of the Oka River, in the Volga and Ural regions, in Western Siberia. New settlements are emerging here. Peasants who fled here from the center from their owners - landowners and estates, monasteries and palace departments or transferred to these places, develop new land masses, enter into economic, marriage, household contacts with the local population. A mutual exchange of management experience is being established: local residents adopt the steam farming system, haymaking, apiary beekeeping, plows and other devices from the Russians; Russians, in turn, will learn from local residents about the method of long-term storage of unthreshed bread, and much more.
Agriculture did not recover quickly, the reasons for this were the low capacity of small peasant farms, low productivity, natural disasters, and crop shortages. The development of this sector of the economy was strongly and for a long time hampered by the consequences of the “Lithuanian ruin”. This is evidenced by scribe books - land inventories of that time. So, in 1622, in three districts south of the Oka - Belevsky, Mtsensk and Yelets - 1187 peasants and 2563 horses sat on the lands of local noblemen, i.e. there were twice as many landless or very weak peasants as peasants themselves. Agriculture, which experienced extreme decline at the beginning of the century, returned to its former state very slowly.
This was reflected in the economic situation of the nobles, their serviceability. In a number of southern counties, many of them did not have land and peasants (odnodvortsy), and even estates. Some, due to poverty, became Cossacks, serfs for rich boyars, monastic servants, or, according to the documents of that time, wallowed in taverns.
By the middle of the century, about half of the lands in the Zamoskovskiy Territory, in some places more than half, were classified by scribes as “living”, and not empty arable land.
The main way of development of agriculture of this time is extensive: farmers include an increasing number of new territories in the economic circulation. The people's colonization of the outskirts is proceeding at a fast pace.
Since the late 50s - 60s, immigrants in many numbers go to the Volga region, Bashkiria, Siberia. With their arrival, they begin to engage in agriculture in those places where it did not exist before, for example, in Siberia.
In European Russia, the dominant system of agriculture was the three-field system. But in the forest regions of the Zamoskovskiy Krai, Pomorye, and even in the northern regions of the southern outskirts, undercutting, fallow, two-field, and motley fields were used. In Siberia, in the second half of the century, fallow land was gradually replaced by three-field land.
Rye and oats were sown most of all. Next came barley and wheat, spring rye (yaritsa) and millet, buckwheat and spelt, peas and hemp. The same is in Siberia. More wheat was sown in the south than in the north. Turnips and cucumbers, cabbages and carrots, radishes and beets, onions and garlic, even watermelons and pumpkins were grown in vegetable gardens. In the gardens - cherries, red currants, gooseberries, raspberries, strawberries, apple trees, pears, plums. The yield was low. Crop failures, shortages, famine were often repeated.
The basis for the development of animal husbandry was the peasant economy. From it, the feudal lords received draft horses to work in their fields and table supplies: meat, live and dead poultry, eggs, butter, and so on. Among the peasants there were, on the one hand, many horses, many cows; on the other - deprived of any livestock. Cattle breeding especially developed in Pomorye, in the Yaroslavl region, in the southern counties.
Fish were caught everywhere, but especially in Pomorie. In the northern regions, the White and Barents Seas, cod and halibut, herring and salmon were caught; hunted seals, walruses, whales. On the Volga and Yaik, red fish and caviar were of particular value.
Subsistence agriculture was dominated by small-scale production. Hence the poor provision of the peasant with food, chronic hunger strikes. But even then, the growth of the social division of labor, the economic specialization of individual regions of the country, contributed to an increase in commodity circulation. The surplus of grain supplied to the market was provided by the southern and Volga districts.
In a number of cases, the king, boyars, nobles, monasteries expanded their own plowing, along with this, they were engaged in entrepreneurial activities and trade.
Craft
In the process of restoring the country's economy, an important place was occupied by handicrafts. Its share in the country's economy increased, the number of handicraft specialties increased, and the skill level of workers increased noticeably. Craftsmen began to work more and more for the market, and not for the order, i.e. production became small-scale. The feudal lords preferred to buy handicrafts in the city markets, rather than use the poor quality products of their rural artisans. Increasingly, peasants also bought urban products, which led to an increase in domestic demand and supply.
In some cities, 30 - 40% of the inhabitants were engaged in crafts. The growth of handicraft production and the expansion of sales markets led to the specialization of individual regions and the territorial division of labor:
Metalworking was done in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Veliky Ustyug; leather was processed in Vologda and Yaroslavl, in Kazan and Kaluga; pottery production was concentrated in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Veliky Ustyug; wood processing was widespread in the Dvina district, Solvychegodsk, Veliky Ustyug and Vyatka lands. Jewelery flourished in Veliky Ustyug, Moscow, Novgorod, Tikhvin, Nizhny Novgorod. Novgorod-Pskov land, Moscow, Yaroslavl became significant centers for the production of textiles; flax - Yaroslavl and Kostroma; salt - Solvychegorsk, Soligalich, Prikamye with Solikamsk, and from the second half of the 17th century. - salt lakes of the Caspian Sea. Not only cities, but also a number of quitrent villages (Pavlovo on the Oka, Ivanovo, Lyskovo, Murashkino, and others) became centers of handicraft production.
Among the artisans, the most numerous group was made up of draft workers - artisans of urban settlements and black-moss volosts. They carried out private orders or worked for the market. Palace artisans served the needs of the royal court; state-owned and registered workers worked on orders from the treasury (construction work, procurement of materials, etc.); privately owned - from peasants, beavers and serfs - produced everything necessary for landowners and estate owners. The handicraft on a rather large scale developed, primarily among the taxpayers, into commodity production. But in different industries it proceeded differently.
The master, as an independent craftsman, had apprentices. According to the "everyday record", the latter dressed up to study and work with the master for five to eight years. The student lived with the owner, ate and drank from him, received clothes, did all kinds of work. At the end of the training, the student worked for some time with the master, sometimes “out of hire”. Apprentices who have acquired the necessary and significant experience or have been tested by specialists become masters themselves.
Replenishment of the corps of artisans was also carried out by exporting townspeople from other cities to Moscow for permanent or temporary work. For the needs of the treasury, the palace from other cities were sent to the capital of gunsmiths and icon painters, silversmiths, masons and carpenters.
manufactories
The noticeable growth of Russian handicrafts in the 17th century, the transformation of a significant part of it into small-scale commodity production, the consolidation, the use of hired labor, the specialization of certain regions of the country, the emergence of a labor market created the conditions for the development of manufactory production.
The number of manufactories has increased - large enterprises based on the division of labor, which remains predominantly manual, and the use of mechanisms driven by water. This indicates the beginning of the transition to early capitalist industrial production, still strongly entangled in feudal relations.
If in Western Europe the development of manufactories took place on the basis of hiring free workers, then in Russia there were almost no free people, therefore the so-called patrimonial manufactories based on the use of serf labor. Serf artisans and peasants were forced to work at enterprises in the order of feudal conscription, their wages were almost not paid. Entire villages were often assigned to manufactories, and then serfs became serf workers. Bourgeois and feudal relations were intertwined in serf manufactories: the entrepreneur was at the same time a landowner - he owned the manufactory, land and workers, and the worker had no means of production and subsisted on the forced sale of his labor force. Such manufactories existed in Russia until the middle of the 19th century.
Manufactory production ("factories") developed mainly in metallurgy (casting of cannons, cannonballs, bells). Some labor processes were mechanized with water engines, so these factories were usually built on dammed rivers.
The first manufactory was built in 1631 in the Urals: the Nitsinsky copper smelter. Near Tula, metallurgical plants of the Dutch A. Vinius, P. Marselis,
F. Akema and others. In Moscow, there were several state-owned (state, possession) manufactories belonging to the Palace Order: Mint, Printed, Khamovny (linen) yards. But in general, manufactories did not yet occupy a large share among enterprises, their total number by the end of the 17th century was only two dozen.
In the same period, scattered manufactory (manufactory at home) developed. A new figure appeared - a buyer, that is, a commercial intermediary between artisans and the market. Buyers from among the wealthy artisans and merchants distributed orders to the houses of producers, presenting certain quantitative and qualitative requirements for products.
Customers-buyers supplied manufacturers with raw materials, tools, often on credit, against future products. Thus, buyers gradually cut off producers from both the sales market and the raw materials market. This type of manufactory existed in Russia until the end of the 19th century, especially around large cities, where a constantly high demand was formed for everyday items: leather and felted shoes, wooden spoons and dishes, tubs, earthenware, etc.
A prominent place began to occupy seasonal crafts, especially in the Non-Chernozem region. In autumn and winter, the peasants went to work in the cities, to build temples and bridges, became river barge haulers and workers in the salt mines, but in the spring they returned to the village for field work. The feudal lords encouraged such activities, since the peasants paid them a cash quitrent, which was beneficial in the conditions of the emerging market.
Along with patrimonial and state-owned appeared merchant manufactories, which used the labor of free citizens, quitrent peasants released for seasonal work, and also attracted foreign craftsmen. So, about 10 thousand free people were employed in various industries of the Stroganovs (salt, potash).
Trade. The beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market
The 17th century is the most important stage in the development of market trade relations, the beginning of the formation of the All-Russian national market. As trade developed, the merchant class continued to develop. The guests were the highest privileged corporation of the merchant class in Russia. They conducted large-scale trade operations both within the country and abroad, and were appointed to responsible positions in central and local economic and financial bodies. For example, in Moscow there were about thirty of them. In addition, there were merchant corporations - a living hundred and a cloth hundred.
Realizing that foreign trade is an important source of income, the government of Alexei Mikhailovich encouraged its development in every possible way. This had a beneficial effect on the development of trade with European (Sweden, England) and Asian countries (Iran, India, China).
Russia exported furs, timber, tar, potash, leather, ropes, canvases. Imported (for the feudal elite) wine, spices, mirrors, cloth, weapons, metal products, paper, paints and other goods.
Showing concern for the development of domestic trade, the government supported the merchants in every possible way, which was reflected in the adopted in 1653. Customs regulations. Various duties levied on sellers of goods were replaced by a single ruble duty of 5% of turnover. In the possessions of secular and spiritual feudal lords, the collection of tolls was prohibited.
In the domestic markets of Russia in the second half of the XVII century. there was a dominance of foreign capital. Experiencing the difficulties of competition, Russian merchants repeatedly turned to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to restrict the access of foreign merchants to Russian markets. In this regard, in 1667 was adopted Novotragovy charter, which provided for a number of restrictions for foreigners: they were not allowed to carry out trading operations in the internal cities of Russia; they could trade only in the border towns: Arkhangelsk, Novgorod, and Pskov, and only during fairs. For trade outside these cities, a special permit (letter) was required. Foreign merchants had to pay a duty of 6% on the sale price, and 15% on luxury goods (for example, wines).
The new trade charter, the draft of which was prepared by the outstanding economist and prominent statesman A. L. Ordyn-Nashchekin, was of a protectionist nature and aimed at monopolizing the domestic market in the hands of large Russian merchant wholesalers.
Economic development of the country in the XVII century. led to the merger of all lands and principalities into one economic entity, predetermined by the increasing volume of goods, the unification of small local markets into one all-Russian market. Such fairs were known throughout the country as Makarievskaya not far from Nizhny Novgorod, Svenskaya near Bryansk, Irbitskaya beyond the Urals.
The formation of an all-Russian market meant overcoming the economic isolation of individual territories and merging them into a single economic system. This ended the long process of formation of the Russian centralized state.
In the West, Russia's foreign policy had no serious successes. This was evidenced by the unsuccessful war with Poland for Smolensk (1632 - 1634). However, things were different in the east. In an unusually short time Russian explorers, continuing the campaigns of the Cossack chieftain Yermak, went from the Ob to the Pacific Ocean, Kamchatka and the Kuriles. In 1645, V. Poyarkov went to the Amur and sailed along the Sea of Okhotsk. S. Dezhnev with twenty-five Cossacks rounded the northeastern tip of Asia and opened the strait between Asia and North America (1648 - 1649). In 1649 - 1653. E. Khabarov with a detachment of Cossacks made a number of trips to the Amur.
Cossacks-pioneers laid cities and prisons. They were followed by enterprising merchants, industrialists, peasants and various "free" people. At the end of the XVII century. the Russian population of Siberia was about 150 thousand people. The local population had to pay yasak to the state. By the end of the XVII century. Siberian agriculture began to produce so much bread that it was enough to feed the entire population of Siberia.
At the end of the XVII century. Russia occupied a huge territory from Arkhangelsk to the Caspian Sea and from the Left-Bank Ukraine to the Pacific Ocean. The country's population was 10.5 million people.
The completion of the economic unification of the country, the formation of the all-Russian market, the beginning of manufactory production created objective opportunities for overcoming the relative backwardness of Russia.
The unrest and intervention at the beginning of the century severely undermined the basis of the Russian economy - agriculture. The territories to the west, northwest and south of Moscow suffered the most; smaller - the Volga region and the North-East. It was on these areas that the militia of Minin and Pozharsky relied. By the middle of the 17th century, the economy of the devastated regions had been largely restored. By this time, all the agriculture of the country had advanced in its development. But this was done not by improving production, but by developing and colonizing new territories.
The farming system of the main grain region of the country (the Great Russian center) was a three-field (alternation of three main fields): winter, spring and free. In the southern steppe regions being developed, the shifting system was widespread, in which, after harvesting several crops in one area, the land was abandoned, and then a new piece of land was developed. In the North, the three-field system was combined with the slash-and-slash system of agriculture, when forest areas were cut down (cut down) and burned out, and the ash, at the same time, became fertilizer. From such a cutting, 2-3 crops were harvested, and then a new plot was cleared, and the old one was gradually transferred to a three-field crop rotation.
Traditional for Russia, rye, wheat, oats, barley, millet, buckwheat, flax and hemp remained the main agricultural crops.
Traditional tools of labor were also preserved: a plow, a harrow, a sickle, a scythe. The plow that turned over the plowed land was rarely used, mainly on the outskirts, where virgin lands were raised. Because agricultural machinery was primitive, crop yields remained generally low. But at the same time, in the 17th century, the total mass of manufactured products increased markedly due to the development of new lands, and due to the final attachment of peasants to the land.
As a result, an important feature of agriculture in the 17th century was the growth of commodity production. This was facilitated by an increase in the urban population, which increased the demand for products, and the desire of farmers to sell them. First of all, the landed estates of large feudal lords (B. I. Morozov, princes I. D. Miloslavsky, Ya. K. Cherkassky, etc.), as well as the farms of monasteries, were drawn into market relations.
The main form of land ownership in the XVII century. remained feudal rent. As before, the feudal lords had two forms of land ownership: patrimony and estate. An estate is the hereditary possession of boyars and princes, an estate is a conditional possession of land by nobles as long as they were in public service.
Already by the beginning of the XVII century. the number of local lands far exceeded the number of patrimonial lands.
But the nobles' possessions were mostly small, while some boyars, at times, were simply huge (Morozov's possessions in the middle of the century, for example, reached 80 thousand acres of land).
A characteristic feature in the development of forms of land ownership in the XVII century. - the gradual disappearance in practice, to a lesser extent in legislation, of the differences between the patrimony and the estate. The government transferred many estates of nobles to their patrimony as a reward for good service or for participation in important state affairs. So, for example, many nobles received hereditary rights to their estates as participants in the Russian-Polish war, which ended in 1667. By the end of the century, the number of estates of serving nobles prevailed over estates.
Large landowners were also spiritual feudal lords, especially monasteries, and church leaders - hierarchs. Patriarchs, metropolitans and archbishops had their own service people and gave them estates from their lands. The interests of the nobility and the church in the issue of land ownership were opposite. The nobles saw church lands as a reserve for local distribution and increasingly demanded that the government liquidate church land ownership. The kings sometimes yielded to the nobles, but at the same time they tried to lessen the economic interests of the spiritual feudal lords. By the end of the century, the fund of church lands did not decrease, and even slightly increased under Patriarch Nikon.
The state peasants were also owners of the land, although the tsar was considered legally the owner of this land. State or black-eared peasants most of all inhabited the north of the country: Pomorie, Pechersk Territory, Perm and Vyatka lands. They lived in communities and in fact could sell, mortgage or inherit their land. The state only ensured that the communities regularly paid taxes and performed various feudal duties. Thus, the state acted in relation to these peasants as a feudal lord. The feudal rent from the state peasants coincided with the state tax. They paid mostly monetary duties.
Serfs in the 17th century constituted the majority of the country's population. The main types of income from privately owned peasants were: labor, food and cash rents.
The labor rent was called corvée or shareware. The peasants cultivated the landlords' land. For this, a relatively uniform standard of working out was established, which was called howl. Depending on the quality of the land, howling was equal to 10-12-14 quarters of land in one field (about 0.5 hectares in a quarter). The peasant usually had from 1/2 to 1/8 vyti. In addition to corvee duty, the peasant also carried underwater, construction and other duties.
Along with the labor rent, there was a food rent (tire). The most common form of quitrent was the so-called "fifth sheaf", when a fifth of the peasant's harvest was given to the landowner. In addition, the peasants supplied the landowner with "table stock" (meat, butter, eggs, dead poultry, mushrooms, berries, nuts, etc.).
In the 17th century the transition from corvée and dues to cash rent becomes noticeable, especially in large feudal farms. In its pure form, each of the forms of rent was rare, most often there were mixed duties. But, at the same time, corvée prevailed in the southern black earth regions, and in the central regions, with less fertile soil, mainly natural or cash dues.
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Main article: Russia in the 17th century
Trade routes - roads with good coverage, inns and a whole park of carts - led through Russia, to Siberia and the Far East, to China. In the 17th century, it became necessary to create markets in a certain place where numerous goods from different regions of the country could be sold. This annual market is called a fair.
There were fairs that had all-Russian significance:
Fairs were held regularly. They contributed to the specialization of the regions.
In the 17th century, different regions of Russia ceased to provide themselves with everything necessary, as was the case with subsistence farming, but developed what was convenient and profitable for them. Selling their goods, they bought what they themselves stopped producing.
Some specialized in the extraction of fur (fur trade), others - in the production of grain (marketable bread), others - in the cultivation of flax and hemp, and the fourth - in salt mining. The salt-producing region around Solvychegodsk, for example, provided the whole country with salt, and the Tula region was famous for its iron products.
Specialization in some kind of production led to the fact that regions and territories could no longer do without each other. The natural character of the economy was disturbed and disappeared.
A whole army of hired "working people" was employed in industrial production and trade.
They worked in workshops, procured raw materials, drove caravans of ships and carts for money. Many of them broke away from agriculture and lived only on wages. It was a new group of the Russian population.
In the 17th century, all of Russia was gradually drawn into trade relations. The formation of an all-Russian market began. This led to the enrichment of merchants. They bought goods in some places and sold them in others. A new type of trading person appeared, who did not conduct trading business himself, but through his trusted people - clerks. Boyar Morozov belonged to such people. He himself never “descended” to trade, but he turned over huge amounts of goods sold domestically and abroad through his clerks. The merchants Stroganovs, through their clerks, traded in Bukhara and the Netherlands. Very rich peasant merchants appeared: the Glotovs, the Fedotovs-Guselniki, the Guryevs, and others.
Patronizing domestic merchants, the government under the first Romanovs in the 17th century was looking for ways to get as many payments from them to the treasury as possible. It appropriated to itself the monopoly right to internal or external trade in the most profitable goods - wine, bread, furs, etc., and then arranged a kind of auctions at which merchants could obtain permission to operate with these goods. Material from the site http://wikiwhat.ru
Along with trade within Russia in the 17th century, foreign trade was also developing. Industrial products, weapons, wines, luxury goods were brought from Europe by sea and land. Hemp, ready-made ropes and fabrics for sails, bread, furs, leather, lard, wax, potash were exported to Western countries through Arkhangelsk. Along the Volga there was a brisk trade with the countries of the East. From there, spices, tea, silk fabrics, oriental carpets arrived in Russia in exchange for Russian industrial goods.
The strengthened Russian merchants of the 17th century demanded support from the government and the creation of favorable conditions for their trade. In 1667, the New Trade Charter was issued, which abolished trading privileges for foreign merchants; imposed high duties on foreign goods; a number of goods that were produced in Russia were forbidden to be imported from abroad. It was forbidden for foreigners to trade Russian goods among themselves in Russia.
Material from the site http://WikiWhat.ru
On this page, material on the topics:
The territory of the state in the 17th century compared to the 16th century increased significantly due to the development of Siberia, the Southern Urals, the annexation of the Left-Bank Ukraine and the Wild Field.
It was divided into counties, volosts and camps.
The country is dominated corvée economy.
His features:
At the same time appear new features
- the rapid development of domestic and foreign trade. Trade relations are developing throughout the country. The role of Astrakhan and Arkhangelsk as port cities through which foreign trade went is increasing. The charters on trade of 1653 and 1667 testify to the emergence of a policy of protectionism. Favorable conditions are being created for Russian merchants. Fabrics, spices, carpets, paints, jewelry, precious vessels were brought from the East. From the West - fabrics, guns, cannons, wines, sugar. From Russia - furs, leather, wax, honey, resin.
Manufactory
Manufactories appear in ferrous metallurgy, salt production, leather business, and shipbuilding. The first manufactory was founded by the Dutch merchant Andrei Vinius in 1636. In the 17th century there were about 30 manufactories.
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After the Time of Troubles, a restoration process was going on in Russia for almost three decades. Only from the middle of the XVII century. new, progressive tendencies begin to appear in the economy. As a result of the defeat of the Golden Horde, the fertile lands of the Black Earth Center and the Middle Volga region are involved in economic circulation. Due to their relatively high yield, they provide some surplus of grain. This surplus is sold to less fertile regions, allowing their population to gradually move on to other activities that are more appropriate for local climatic conditions. There is a process of zoning - the economic specialization of various regions. In the northwest, in Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk lands, flax and other industrial crops are cultivated. The northeast - Yaroslavl, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod lands - begins to specialize in cattle breeding. Peasant crafts are also developing noticeably in these regions: in the northwest - weaving, in the northeast - tanning. The growing exchange of agricultural and industrial products, the development of commodity-money relations lead to the gradual formation of the internal market (the process is completed only by the end of the 17th century). Trade in the 17th century was mainly of a fair nature. Some fairs were of national significance: Makaryevskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Irbitskaya (Southern Urals) and Svenskaya (near Bryansk). Manufactories have become a new phenomenon in the economy - large-scale production with a division of labor, so far mostly manual. The number of manufactories in Russia in the 17th century. did not exceed 30; the only industry in which they arose was metallurgy.
In social terms, the nobility is becoming an increasingly significant force. By continuing to give land to servicemen for their service, the government avoids taking them away. Increasingly, estates are inherited, i.e. become more and more like fiefdoms. Indeed, in the 17th century this process has not yet been backed up by special decrees. The peasantry in 1649 was finally attached to the land by the Council Code: St. George's Day was canceled forever; the search for fugitives became indefinite. This enslavement was still formal in nature - the state did not have the strength to really attach the peasantry to the land. Until the beginning of the XVIII century. they wandered around Russia in search of a better share of the gang of "walking people". The authorities are taking measures to support the "trading class", especially its privileged elite - the guests. In 1653, the Trade Charter was adopted, replacing many small trade duties with one, in the amount of 5% of the price of the goods sold. Competitors of Russian merchants - foreigners - had to pay 8%, and according to the New Trade Charter of 1667 - 10%.
In terms of political development of the XVII century. was the time of the formation of the autocratic system. Tsarist power gradually weakened and abolished the class-representative bodies that limited it.
Zemsky Sobors, to whose support after the Time of Troubles the first Romanov, Mikhail, appealed almost every year, cease to be convened under his successor Alexei (the last sobor was convened in 1653). The tsarist government skillfully takes the boyar duma under its control, introducing into it duma clerks and nobles (up to 30% of the composition), who unconditionally supported the tsar. Proof of the increased strength of tsarist power and the weakening of the boyars was the abolition in 1682 of parochialism. The command bureaucracy, which served as a support for the tsar, is being strengthened and expanded. The order system becomes cumbersome and clumsy: by the end of the 17th century. there were more than 40 orders, some of them were of a functional nature - Ambassadorial, Local, Streletsky, etc., and part of the territorial - Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian, etc. An attempt to control this colossus with the help of the order of Secret Affairs was unsuccessful. Locally in the 17th century elective governing bodies are finally obsolete. All power passes into the hands of the voevodas, appointed from the center and living on feeding at the expense of the local population. In the second half of the XVII century. in Russia, regiments of a new system appear, in which "eager people" - volunteers - served for a salary. At the same time, the Eagle was built on the Volga - the first ship capable of withstanding sea navigation.
The economic development of the country in the 17th century was complicated by the consequences of the Time of Troubles:
- abandoned arable land - up to 50%.
- the population decreased, villages and cities were depopulated.
- loss of large areas in the north and west.
Only by the middle of the 17th century these consequences were overcome.
The territory of the state in the 17th century compared to the 16th century increased significantly due to the development of Siberia, the Southern Urals, the annexation of the Left-Bank Ukraine and the Wild Field. It was divided into counties, volosts and camps.
The population is 10.5 million people, most of them live in the European part, the density is low. In the middle of the 17th century there were 254 cities, the largest being Moscow with a population of 270,000 people.
Russia in the 17th century was a feudal country. In Western Europe, at that time, the process of disintegration of feudal relations was underway, capitalism was being established, and in Russia feudalism was being strengthened, and capitalist relations were only emerging in industry, trade, and partly in agriculture.
The country is dominated corvée economy.
His features:
- exists under the dominance of subsistence farming, when everything you need is produced on your own farm and consumed here, weak economic connection with the market.
- it is impossible without the peasants having a land plot provided by the landowner. From it the peasant is fed and pays taxes.
- the peasant is in personal dependence on the feudal lord, there is non-economic coercion.
- the organization of labor, methods of cultivating the land are being improved slowly. Peasants work in the old fashioned way, there is no interest.
At the same time appear new features in the economic development of Russia:
- Commodity production develops, i.e. production, designed for market sales, both in the city and in the countryside. Nobles, boyars, monasteries are actively involved in commercial and industrial activities. The main goods going to the market are bread, salt, fish, handicrafts. Commodity-money relations develop.
- the craft is gradually developing into small-scale production - artisans used to work to order, and now they go to the market. The number of handicraft specialties is increasing due to the allocation of new handicraft specialties within individual types of production.
- specialization of regions in the production of certain types of agricultural products or handicrafts (Volga region - commercial production of bread, Siberia - furs, Pomorie - fish, salt, carpentry, northwest and west - flax, hemp, crafts, Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kostroma - linen business, leather production, Novgorod, Tula, Moscow - metallurgy, metalworking).
- the rapid development of domestic and foreign trade.
Trade relations are developing throughout the country. The role of Astrakhan and Arkhangelsk as port cities through which foreign trade went is increasing. The charters on trade of 1653 and 1667 testify to the emergence of a policy of protectionism. Favorable conditions are being created for Russian merchants. Fabrics, spices, carpets, paints, jewelry, precious vessels were brought from the East. From the West - fabrics, guns, cannons, wines, sugar. From Russia - furs, leather, wax, honey, resin.
Cities were centers of trade. Fairs were held there - Makarievskaya, Tikhvinskaya, Svenskaya, Irbitskaya, etc.
The development of foreign trade was complicated by the lack of access to the seas - the Baltic and Black.
- the all-Russian market is gradually beginning to take shape. It is characterized by:
A single monetary and tax system, a single system of weights and measures, a single economic space, the absence of customs barriers between regions.
- the emergence of manufactories is the main evidence of the emerging capitalist relations.
Manufactory is a large enterprise based on manual labor with a division of labor between workers.
Manufactories appear in ferrous metallurgy, salt production, leather business, and shipbuilding.
The first manufactory was founded by the Dutch merchant Andrei Vinius in 1636. In the 17th century there were about 30 manufactories.
Peculiarities:
- unlike European manufactories, Russian ones were based not on free labor, but on serfs. (an exception is the salt manufactories in the North, where there is no noble land ownership). Peasants were bought and assigned to manufactories. There are few free laborers.
- the state most often acted as organizers (80% of manufactories fulfilled its order). The owners were also merchants, the royal court, noble boyars and foreigners.
- the weak interest of manufacturers in improving technology due to the cheapness of labor.
Manufactories have so far played an insignificant role, serving military needs. But the important thing is that they appeared.
Thus, Russia remained a feudal country, but the beginnings of industrial production appeared, the volume between industries increased, and an all-Russian market began to take shape.
1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the 17th century
During the Time of Troubles, a significant part of the country's territory was devastated and devastated. First of all, the central and southern regions suffered. This was especially true for those lands that had just begun to revive after the terrible “spoil” caused by the Livonian War and the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible. The economy in the central regions revived at an extremely slow pace. For example, in 14 central districts of the center of Russia, by the 70s of the 17th century. plowed land was 60% of the previously cultivated.
Overcoming the consequences of the "great Moscow ruin" was hampered by a number of factors. Russia suffered heavy human and territorial losses during the Time of Troubles. Complicated natural and climatic conditions and infertile soils of the central regions of the country, where the bulk of the population lived, had a considerable inhibitory effect. Peasant farms continued to have a consumer character and were weak. They focused on meeting their own needs (for food and a little more to pay taxes), since the natural and climatic conditions and low soil fertility made the work of the peasant extremely difficult. But the feudal and tax policy of the state was also of considerable importance, which did not create an interest in the farmer in increasing production. The state often did not take into account the interests of the people, demanding from them more and more new victims. With the increase in its needs for funds, it often withdrew from the producers not only the surplus product, but also part of the necessary. Along with this, secular feudal lords and the church increased corvée and dues.
A significant role in the fact that the peasant economy had a consumer character was played by the Orthodox communal tradition, which oriented the peasant towards the simple satisfaction of the needs of himself and his family. The peasant did not want to expand production for income and enrichment because the idea of the immorality of wealth, that it does not bring peace of mind, was acquired not according to conscience, but at the expense of others. Possession of wealth means unnecessary troubles, excitement, fear of God (“whoever is satisfied with little is not forgotten by God”). Therefore, according to the peasant, work should be moderate, work beyond measure is greed, and not a charitable deed. And therefore, in work, you need to know a sense of proportion so that there is time to satisfy other, mostly spiritual needs (“God has many days ahead - we will work out”).
The economy grew more rapidly in the southern regions, where the lands were fertile. The development of the southern regions, the Middle Volga region, Siberia led to the rise of agriculture and an increase in agricultural production. The rise of the Russian economy was carried out in an extensive way. The mass of undeveloped lands made it possible to go this way and not think about improving the methods of cultivating the land. Why work on the restoration of arable land, why look for livestock feed in order to get organic fertilizer - manure, when you can move from place to place in search of more fertile land? Therefore, colonization flows to new lands were evidence of the extensive development of agriculture, when more and more new lands were included in the economic turnover.
Agricultural tools were of a routine nature. The main tools of the farmer were still a plow, a wooden harrow, a scythe, a sickle, a flail. The plow was rarely used, and then on the farms of large feudal lords.
The three-field system of agriculture continued to dominate. Traditional for the previous time methods of cultivating the land remained unchanged. Routine agricultural machinery and agricultural technology, combined with poor soil fertility and difficult climatic conditions, predetermined low yields in the Non-Chernozem region, on the order of three poods (three poods were harvested per sown pood of grain); in the black earth regions, the yield was twice as high.
Rye, oats, barley, wheat, buckwheat, millet, and peas remained the main agricultural crops. Flax and hemp were grown from industrial crops. Animal husbandry developed mainly in peasant farms. There were peasants with many horses and many cows, but there were also peasants without cattle. Horticulture (apples, pears, plums, cherries, raspberries, gooseberries) and gardening (cucumbers, carrots, beets, turnips, onions, garlic, radishes) actively developed in Russia.
The slow recovery of agriculture dealt a blow to the economic position of the petty and middle nobility and their serviceability. Some nobles did not have peasants and land. Many, due to poverty, remained serfs of wealthy landowners, servants of monasteries. Peasant and landowner farms were mostly subsistence.
However, the growth of the social division of labor and the beginning economic specialization of individual regions led to an increase in commodity production and exchange. This was especially facilitated by the developing commercial economy. Fish and salt were mined in Pomorie, walruses and seals were hunted in the White Sea, fur animals were hunted in Pechora, Dvina, the north of the Urals and Siberia, salt was also mined on the Kama (Kama salt), in Staraya Russa, Novgorod, and Solovki. They actively produced tar and resin. In a number of areas there were on-board farms. The large farms of secular feudal lords and monasteries were drawn into commodity-money relations. They produced various goods and traded them, helping out a lot of money for that. But the funds received from trade were not used for its further development, were not invested in the development of production, but were used to expand the estates through the purchase of new lands, to increase the number of dependent people through the distribution of money to bondage, which strengthened the estates and conserved their natural economic activity. basis.
The privately owned peasants were less intensively involved in commodity-money relations, because they were subject to the arbitrariness and power of the feudal lords, were not always able to freely dispose of their labor, and were burdened with ever-increasing property and state taxes and duties. It should be noted that the personally free and economically more active black-haired peasants were more actively involved in commodity-money relations. It was among them that prosperous "capitolist" peasants began to appear first of all, many of whom became in the 17th century. big merchants.
Peasant handicraft production was widely developed in the owner's and black-mowed villages. The peasants made canvases, felt boots, bast, bast shoes, towels, matting, sermyaga, sledges, resin, and tar. Gradually, it developed into small-scale production.
In the Russian economy of the XVII century. significantly increased the share of handicraft production. Specialization and division of labor deepened in the craft. Moscow, Veliky Ustyug, Yaroslavl, Tula, Novgorod, and others were major centers of handicraft production. There were up to 260 handicraft specialties in Moscow, and Yaroslavl had 200 specialties. Craft centers in the 17th century. There are also some villages where the peasants, refusing to engage in agriculture, concentrated all their forces on handicraft production. Such villages were in the Volga region - Pavlovo, Lyskovo, Murashkino, where they were engaged in metal processing, in the Tula region, in the Olonets region. In the 17th century the commodity specialization of a number of districts and cities was already clearly visible. Leather production was actively developing in Yaroslavl and Kazan, metal was brought from Ustyuzhna Zhelezopolskaya, metal products from Ustyug and Siberia, flax from Pskov and Rzhev, salt from Totma and Staraya Russa.
In the 17th century in the development of handicraft production, an important point was its transformation into small-scale production. If earlier artisans mainly worked to order, now more and more of them worked for the market, where a wide range of products made of iron, leather, wood and other products were presented. But it should be noted that handicraft production in Russia had its own specifics. In many ways, it resembled seasonal production. Craftsmen worked with large temporary breaks: most of the time they devoted themselves to handicrafts, but part of the time they were forced to engage in agriculture. This Russian city differed from the Western European. This specificity hindered the accumulation of funds and the enlargement of the scale of production.
Differentiation deepened among the urban, townspeople, hired labor in the fields and in handicraft production became commonplace. But wage labor at that time most often led to the loss of personal independence, and the employee who worked for hire found himself in serfdom. It could not be otherwise in a country where serfdom intensified in all its manifestations.
In the 17th century, a new form of production arose - manufactory. In Western Europe, where manufactories had already existed for a whole century, they arose on the basis of the development of small-scale production into manufactory. They were based on free wage labor, gave high labor productivity, turned the craftsman into a hired worker. Therefore, Western European manufactory was a stage in the development of capitalist production.
The nature of manufactories in Russia was different. The development of small-scale crafts and the growth of commodity specialization prepared the ground for their emergence. The emergence of manufactories was brewing in places where commodity production was developing. Their creation was accelerated by the growth of state needs for metal, linen, and cloth. It was there that the government founded them and endowed them with serf labor, attributing black-haired peasants to them or buying serfs.
If Western European manufactory operated on the basis of free hired labor, then Russian manufactory was based on serf labor, since the market for free hired labor in Russia, where serfdom developed in breadth and depth, was extremely narrow. It must also be borne in mind that serf labor was inefficient, and because of the cheapness of serf labor, manufacturers were not interested in improving production, which hindered its growth.
In the 17th century There were 30 manufactories in Russia. The first appeared in 1631 in the Urals - the Nitsinsky copper smelter. The ironworks of Vinnius and Wilkinson functioned near Tula. Several of these factories, supplied by S. Gavrilov, operated in the Olonetsky region. Leather manufactory production developed in Yaroslavl and Kazan. Manufactories belonged to the palace department - Mint, Printing, Khamovny (linen) yards.
Thus, by the nature of production, Russian manufactories contributed to the preparation for the emergence of capitalist production. This was due to the use of water-powered machines, the division of labor, new technologies of production processes, and the use of freelance labor in skilled work. However, freelance labor in Russian manufactories in relation to the entire mass of workers employed there was very insignificant. Russian manufactories, based on serf labor, worked mainly for the state, were not closely connected with the market, and therefore did not become a phenomenon indicating the development of early bourgeois relations in Russia. Manufactories working on serf labor could give a temporary effect in overcoming backwardness by the country, which happened in the 18th century, but it was possible to completely overcome backwardness and increase the pace of production only by following the path of its organization outside serfdom. It was impossible to do this in Russia. The state could not and did not want to go any other way than it did in satisfying its needs for industrial production.
A more important phenomenon in the development of early bourgeois relations in Russia, testifying to its entry into a new period of history, was the beginning of the development of an internal all-Russian market. Its emergence and development was based on the growth of small-scale production, which led to the active development of trade, trade relations, which led to the formation of large shopping centers: they were Moscow, Ustyug the Great, Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kostroma. The Volga was a lively trading artery, where Astrakhan, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod developed as large shopping centers. Fairs played an important role in the development of trade: Makaryevskaya, Svenskaya, Tikhvinskaya, Irbitskaya, Solvychegodskaya. The number of local rows and fairs grew.
New in the development of market relations in Russia was the emergence of merchant capital and the development of the merchant class, which subordinated the exchange, thereby influencing production, drawing artisans and handicraftsmen into the market circulation.
Trade in Russia did not bring noticeable profits to the state. Huge profits are usually made by large-scale wholesale, as well as sea trade. But Russia's maritime trade with Europe continued to be conducted through a single port - Arkhangelsk, which operated only a few months a year. He could not satisfy the growing economic needs of the country, which was faced with the acute problem of access to ice-free, trade-friendly seas.
Land trade in Russia did not give such an effect as sea trade. She wore a sluggish, essentially seasonal character. The agricultural nature of the Russian economy required access to the seas, because the export of agricultural products of this bulky cargo was beyond the power of overland trade.
There were other significant obstacles to the development of Russian trade and merchants. Foreign capital sought to capture Russian markets, colliding with the interests of Russian merchants. The merchants of Russia demanded that the state protect them from competition with foreign commercial capital. In 1653, the Trade Charter was adopted, which established a 5% duty on goods imported into the country. In 1667, the Ordin-Nashchokin new trade charter was adopted, according to which foreign merchants were prohibited from retail trade in Russia, and a 10% duty was introduced on foreign goods sold within the country.
Russian trading people were also hampered by the competition of large secular feudal lords and the church, which conducted large-scale trade. The state, which needed to supply the goods it needed, forced rich merchants to buy goods with their capital and deliver them to the treasury. Many goods that were profitable for trade were taken to the treasury, and trade in them became a monopoly of the state. To meet state needs, the merchants were united by the government into corporations of "guests" - "living room hundred" and "cloth hundred".
Under the conditions of the dominance of feudal-serfdom and the fiscal policy of the state, the capital accumulated in trade was not used to develop the country's economy, but to enrich the state, the growth of feudal estates, the accumulation of treasures there and the involvement of the masses in bondage.
Thus, in the Russian economy of the XVII century. the dominant position was occupied by the feudal system. Early bourgeois elements began to take shape in the country, but they were subject to the influence of the feudal system and, in the course of their development, acquired features characteristic of it.
In the 17th century the formation of the class organization of Russian society continued, which was reflected in the Council Code of 1649. The population of Russia was divided into several groups. This division was based on the formal difference between these groups in their obligations to the state.
The first group consisted of service people who served the state, for which they received land and monetary salaries. Serving people were divided into service "according to the fatherland" and service "according to the instrument." Duma officials who sat in the Boyar Duma belonged to the service people "by fatherland" (that is, by origin). These included boyars, okolnichie, duma nobles, as well as duma clerks. Next came the “ranks of Moscow” - stewards, lawyers, Moscow nobles, “residents” (that is, permanently living with the sovereign in Moscow). Then came the "ranks of the city" - the local provincial nobility, which consisted of nobles and "children of the boyars." From this mass of service people "in the fatherland" noble cavalry was recruited.
In terms of their financial situation and social status, the provincial nobles and "children of the boyars" differed from the capital's nobility. Among the service people "in the fatherland" in the XVII century. the process of consolidation and striving for class isolation begins. In the 17th century, the strengthening of the feudal estate as a whole was based on the growth of landed property. During the Time of Troubles, the old nobility was pushed aside by a new one, the same in its social nature, but often surpassing the old nobility in terms of land ownership. The nobility also grew. It increased due to the distribution of land under the first Romanovs. The nobles were granted black and palace lands, as well as lands of estates confiscated from those boyars who served both False Dmitrys.
In the 17th century began to blur the lines between patrimonial and local landownership. The connection between the service and the land reward for it was lost. Estates often remained with the clan, even if the service was terminated. The nobles received greater rights in the disposal of their estates. Thus, the estate more and more lost the character of conventionality and moved closer to the patrimony. By the end of the XVII century. the differences between them were already purely formal.
Many nobles in the 17th century remained land-poor or even landless. The nobility continued to seek from the state new lands with peasants, to increase their social status, to detect and return fugitive peasants. And the state sought to meet him halfway. It took upon itself the search for runaway peasants. Detectives and military teams operated in the counties, looking for and returning fugitives. The fine for harboring a fugitive was increased to 20 rubles. The state sought to prevent the erosion of the ruling class through the entry into the service of representatives of other classes. By a decree of 1642, the serfs who signed up for service were returned to their former servile state. By a decree of 1675, it was forbidden for the black-haired peasants to enroll in the nobility.
The principle of the origin and nobility of the family in the XVII century. ceased to be of decisive importance when moving up the career ladder. Service in the state apparatus and promotion in this service were of increasing importance in real life, which led to the loss of interest in parochialism among all service people "in the fatherland". The abolition of localism in 1682 contributed to the advancement of new families to power, competing with the weakened and impoverished noble families. The abolition of localism further blurred the lines between the tribal nobility and service nobles, and deepened the process of consolidation of the ruling class.
Serving people "according to the instrument": archers, gunners, city Cossacks, state-owned masters of collars, zatinshchiks, etc. - were recruited from among free people and for their service received a small monetary salary or land "dachas" from which they had to feed. The state, which was in constant need of money, could not regularly pay salaries to "instrument" people, so they were allowed to engage in trade and craft activities. "Instrument" service people lived by their own labor and, in their interests and economic situation, approached the townspeople. They did not pay the state tax. But in Moscow, according to the Council Code of 1649, service people "according to the instrument", except for the archers, had to pay taxes from their trades and crafts, but they did not carry other duties of the townspeople.
Another significant group of the population of Russia in the XVII century. were taxable people who performed a complex of natural and monetary duties in favor of the state. They included peasants and townspeople.
Gone were such categories of peasants as old-timers, silversmiths, newcomers, and others. The peasantry, like the ruling estate, consolidated as a single taxable estate. It was divided into privately owned (living in estates and estates), monastic, palace, chernososhnye (state). The Council Code of 1649 abolished the deadlines for the search for fugitive peasants (“lesson years”) and introduced an indefinite search for fugitives. Thus, serfdom was legally formalized. It extended to the entire taxable population of the country (peasants and townspeople). The peasants were fixed on the lands of their feudal lords, the townspeople - behind the cities where they lived. The property of a serf was recognized as the property of the landowner. According to the Council Code, he could sell a peasant without land. The decree of 1675 finally legalized such a sale. The peasant state was inherited. The state tried to interfere as little as possible in the relationship between landowners and peasants. He was only interested in the fact that peasants paid taxes and performed their state duties.
In the 17th century there were all forms of rent - labor (corvee), natural and cash (tire). The duties of the peasants were very diverse, which corresponded to the natural nature of the feudal economy of the 17th century. The peasants plowed, sowed, harvested crops in the master's fields, exported fertilizers to them, mowed hay, worked in the master's vegetable gardens and orchards, caught fish, built dams and dams, delivered hay, firewood, a variety of agricultural products to the master, brought berries and mushrooms, they brewed wine, built mansions and all sorts of outbuildings for it, transported its products for sale, wove canvases, made collars and arcs, shod horses, etc. In some cases, work began to be added to these duties at manufactories started by feudal lords in their households.
Along with corvée, quitrent duties also increased. In connection with the intensification of exploitation and serfdom, the stratification in the peasant environment became more noticeable. A large category of “zahrebetniks”, “subjugated”, who lived and worked for wealthy peasants, was formed. The number of beavers who did not have their own economy and did not bear taxes grew. The number of peasants - "ladles" was growing, for loans taken they gave half of the crop. Some of the peasants went to work.
The peasants who lived in communities on the black lands were exploited by the feudal state. By the 17th century the mass of the black-mossed peasantry has already been greatly reduced, and it has survived only in a few regions of the North. Chernososhnye peasants paid taxes from lands and crafts, supplied grain stocks, performed heavy yam duty, as well as various elective services, for which they were responsible with their property. They were personally free, they could freely dispose of the land, that is, sell it, inherit it, but on the condition that the new owners continue to pay taxes and perform duties.
The organization of manufactories was a new burden for the black-haired peasantry. The government attributed entire volosts to manufactories, obliging the peasants to work for them.
Within the black-sown peasantry, stratification proceeded faster than among the privately owned peasants. The impoverished peasants fell into bondage, the wealthy elite of the black-haired peasantry was drawn into fishing and trading activities. This elite occupied a dominant position in the secular elected bodies and was the backbone of state power, monitored the performance of state duties. They laid out and collected taxes, carried out investigations and trials for certain criminal offenses, and resolved litigations and disputes.
The monastic peasants belonged either to the Patriarchal Palace Order or to the monastic brethren. Church estates were not subject to alienation.
Palace peasants belonged to the king and the royal family. These peasants could change ownership only as a result of granting palace lands to someone in possession. Their main duty was to supply the royal court with food. Palace peasants were distributed to service people. Particularly widespread were distributions during the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich. The economic situation of the palace peasants was better than that of privately owned peasants, their duties were easier, they enjoyed more freedom in their economic activities.
In Russian cities there were "black" settlements, whose inhabitants carried the state tax, and "white" settlements, which belonged to the feudal lords and did not carry the state tax. "White" settlements were eliminated by the Council Code of 1649.
The situation of the townspeople was extremely difficult. They paid archery and pit money, dues for palace places and trading premises, kept lower police officers, cabbies, fire "junk". In addition, the townspeople served as "kissers" by choice in various state services, for the performance of which they were responsible with their property: watchmen in prisons, at the reception and issuance of sable and iron sovereign treasury, etc. Since in the performance of these duties they broke away from their usual activities, the settlements were jointly obliged to give them "help". Townspeople kept the pavements in order, carried out guard duty at night, etc. Moreover, they often had to pay extraordinary taxes and dues from property.
Posad people were divided into "best", "middle", "young". The merchants made up the top of the urban settlement and were among the "best" people. They were united by the state in corporations. "Guests" had the right to own land and travel abroad. The merchants of the "living room" and "cloth" hundreds had freedom from township services. Merchants already in the 17th century. began to fight for their rights and privileges, for separation from the number of townspeople into an independent estate.
Another group of the population consisted of serfs, whose number was still quite significant. In the 17th century complete servility was practically eliminated and only bondage remained. Kholops served the family of their owner (yard servants, artisans), they included clerks who managed the estates, military servants who went on campaigns with their owner. Backyard people worked on the master's arable land, receiving maintenance ("month") for this. The Council Code established that only free people could now become serfs. Peasants of private individuals and service people could not become serfs. This reduced the sources of servility.
At the end of the XVII century. backyard people were put on salary, like serfs. The search for runaway serfs was carried out in the same way as runaway peasants. Thus, the decrease in the sources of servility and the rapprochement of serfs with serfs actually led to the elimination of this institution in Russia.
A special estate was the clergy, divided into white (clergymen, clergymen) and black (monasticism). in Russia in the 17th century. there were 100-110 thousand white clergy and 10 thousand monastics. The most important questions of church life were decided at church councils. The Council Code of 1649 forbade the clergy to buy, accept as a pledge the patrimonial and "served" estates of secular persons. Zemsky Sobor 1648–1649 deprived the clergy of judicial and administrative privileges, subordinated them to the secular court in non-ecclesiastical matters.
In the second half of the XVI-XVII centuries. in the course of extensive peasant and landowner colonization, the Don land was settled, where the Cossacks were formed. The needs of the defense of the southern borders forced the government to rely on the Cossacks, who waged an unceasing war with the Crimean Tatars, Nogays, and Turks. The government did not violate the Cossack law, which stated that “there is no extradition from the Don”, did not interfere in the self-government of the Cossacks, supplied them with bread, money, weapons, ammunition. The Cossacks lived in communities. Each Cossack town had its own circle, where chieftains and captains were elected. Local military circles resolved the lawsuits and complaints of the Cossacks, the internal affairs of the Cossack community. The life of the Cossack communities was regulated by traditions, military and customary law.
Since the Cossacks were not engaged in arable farming at all or were engaged in little, the main source of livelihood for them was the booty acquired during military campaigns, which were called "campaigns for zipuns." Captured Cossacks were released for a ransom.
Despite the democratic structure of the Cossack communities, social stratification developed in them. In the 17th century two groups were clearly defined: the prosperous, "domovity" Cossacks, who lived in the lower reaches of the Don and practically ruled in the military circle of the Don Cossacks, and the poor, "goofy", who lived mainly in the upper reaches of the Don. Most of the sovereign's salary went to wealthy Cossacks, who traveled to Moscow to receive it as part of the Cossack "villages".
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What were the features of the development of the Russian economy in the 17th century?
Largely due to the severe consequences of the Troubles in the XVII century. Russia lagged behind most European countries in its economic development. Nevertheless, it was at this time that the all-Russian market was being formed, and the beginnings of market relations appeared in the economy and the economy of the country. However, market relations were hampered by serfdom and state control. In the 17th century the rise of the economy was accompanied by the registration of serfdom in Russia.
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What is corvee and dues? Do you remember what types of quitrent existed?
Corvee - the time of work on the owner's land.
Quit - payment for the use of the owner's land in products, less often in money.
Types of dues: payments in bread, meat, fish and other products.
Page 33
What is a fair?
The fair is an annual trade event where goods from different regions were brought.
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When was the penny introduced? Why did this coin get such a name?
The kopeck was introduced during the monetary reform of 1535-1538, it was 1/100 of the ruble. It depicted a rider with a spear, so they began to call this coin a penny.
Page 35. Questions and tasks for the text of the paragraph
1. List the main consequences of the Time of Troubles for the development of the Russian economy and economy.
The main consequences of the Time of Troubles for the development of the Russian economy and economy: economic devastation, disruption of trade relations, population decline.
2. What are the fundamental differences between a manufactory and a craft workshop.
The fundamental differences between a manufactory and a handicraft workshop: there was a division of labor at the manufactory and manual handicraft equipment was used.
3. What distinguished state factories from private manufactories?
State-owned factories differed from private manufactories in that production was organized differently, the profitability of private manufactories was higher, the labor of free workers was used in private manufactories, and assigned (state) peasants were used in state-owned factories.
4. What goods in the XVII century. imported to Russia? What goods were exported from Russia?
In the 17th century goods were imported into Russia: cloth, cotton and silk fabrics, non-ferrous metals, weapons, spices, paints, paper, tea.
Leather, lard, potash, hemp, resin were exported from Russia. Bread - by special permission.
5. List the main features in the development of Russian agriculture in the 17th century.
The main features in the development of Russian agriculture in the 17th century:
Recovery after the oprichnina and the Troubles
Poverty of peasants (beans - those who did not have livestock, tools, money)
The appearance of cash dues in some farms of landlords
Specialization of individual regions of the country in the production of agricultural products
The emergence of wealthy peasants and townspeople of their own enterprises - forges, soap factories, leather establishments.
6. What is the essence of the monetary reform of 1654? Why was she unsuccessful?
The essence of the monetary reform of 1654: the introduction of the copper penny. It was unsuccessful due to the gap in the value of silver and copper kopecks.
Page 57. Working with the map
Page 36. Studying the Document
1. Merchants from which European countries, regions and cities traded in Russia?
Merchants traded in Russia from European countries, regions and cities - England, Holland, Hamburg, Brabant.
2. What were the Russian merchants unhappy with?
Russian merchants were dissatisfied with the free trade of foreign merchants, who competed with them and thereby harmed trade.
3. Based on the text of the paragraph, list the measures taken by the government to protect Russian merchants.
1649 - British ban on internal trade
1653 - adoption of the Trade Charter, which eliminated petty customs duties
1667 - the adoption of the New Trade Charter, which further limited the rights of foreign merchants (they can only sell their goods in bulk in border towns, high duties on foreign goods).
Page 36. Think, compare, reflect
1. Prove that the development of market relations in Russia was hampered by the feudal system.
The development of market relations in Russia was hampered by the feudal system, since the attachment of peasants to the land hindered their production of goods. Only a few peasants could develop their own production, but at the same time remain serfs.
2. Compare the economic development of Russia and European countries in the XVII century.
Largely due to the severe consequences of the Troubles in the XVII century. Russia lagged behind most European countries in its economic development. The internal trade market developed more slowly, manufactories slowly appeared, and most importantly, because of serfdom, there were no free hands.
The first step towards change was the English bourgeois revolution of 1640, it was this event that became the starting point of the new time. The revolution of the 17th century in England marked the end of feudal relations and marked the beginning of the development of a new, capitalist formation. The closed subsistence economy, the dependence of the peasantry on the feudal lord, narrow manual production are gone. Manufactories, the forerunners of factory production, became the main factor in the development of the economy. Manufactory production gave impetus to the development of industry, and with it the further development of other areas - from culture to politics.
In Russia, the 17th century became a time of improvement and consolidation of feudalism with its specific features, peculiar only to Russia. At this time, serfdom finally took shape, thereby completing the process of attaching the peasantry to the land. Serfdom led to the dominance of subsistence farming and the ensuing weakening of trade and economic ties and the forced strengthening of the role of the state. At the same time, the 17th century paved the way for further transformations and reforms that turned Russia into an empire.
3. Using additional materials (including the Internet), prove that the Russian economy in the 17th century. did not depend on European and Asian goods.
Economy of Russia in the 17th century. did not depend on European and Asian goods because very few of these goods were imported. In addition, government policy was aimed at reducing the import of these goods, while the economy was developing.
4. Analyze the monetary system of Russia and Europe in the 17th century. (use a general history textbook and the internet). Report the results of the task in the form of a message.
The monetary system is a form of organization of monetary circulation in the country, which has developed historically and is enshrined in national legislation. An integral part of the monetary system is the national monetary system, which at the same time is an independent element of the monetary system. Monetary systems were formed in Europe in the XVI-XVII centuries during the strengthening of state power and the formation of national markets. The objective need for a single, stable and elastic monetary system was determined by the following factors:
Feudal fragmentation, including in monetary matters, which prevented the formation of a national market;
Commodity-money relations of the period of capitalism of free competition, which required the stability of the monetary system, the relative constancy of the value of the monetary unit.
Bimetallism is a monetary system in which the state legislates the role of a universal equivalent for two precious metals (usually gold and silver), while providing for the free minting of coins from both metals and their unlimited circulation.
Bimetallism was widespread in the 16th-17th centuries. In general, the bimetallic system was contradictory and unstable. It did not meet the needs of a developed commodity economy, since the use of two metals (gold and silver) as a measure of value at the same time contradicts the nature of this function of money. In general, only one commodity can serve as a measure of value. In addition, the fixed cost ratio between gold and silver established by the state did not correspond to their market value. As a result of the cheapening of the production of silver and its depreciation, gold coins began to go out of circulation into a treasure, that is, coins from a depreciated metal replaced coins from another metal from circulation.
The development of commodity production required stable money, a single universal equivalent, so bimetallism gave way to monometallism.
Monometallism is such a monetary system in which one monetary metal (gold or silver) serves as a universal equivalent and at the same time there are other signs of value (banknotes, treasury notes) in circulation that can be exchanged for this monetary metal.
By the end of the 17th century, a fairly unified monetary system existed in the countries of Western Europe, the basis of which was a thaler - a large coin made of high-grade silver weighing 28 grams. Gold ducats weighing about 3.5 grams were also minted; copper coins with a metal content close to the face value were additionally used as change coins.
Europe owes the widespread use of the thaler system to the discovery of large deposits of silver in the Austrian Tyrol, the Belgian-Dutch Brabant, and Joachimsthal in Czech Bohemia. Both the Western name "thaler" and its Russian equivalent "efimok" come from it. In the production of coins, two main methods were used - embossing finished circles on screw presses or rolling forged strips through rolls with stamps (roller) followed by cutting out coin circles.
Due to the absence of its own deposits of gold and silver, the Russian state appropriated the monopoly right to purchase efimki, banning their domestic circulation. Efimki were melted down at the money yard, after which the silver was pulled through a drawing gate into a wire of a certain section. The wire was cut into pieces, flattened and minted by hand. The national specificity of the operation of the monetary regalia was that the treasury bought efimki at a forced rate of 50 kopecks, and after the monetary redistribution, 64 kopecks came out of the same thaler (after the decree of 1698 - 100 kopecks).
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the monetary system of the Russian kingdom consisted of: the ruble, half a ruble, hryvnia, penny, kopeck, dengi, half-dengi and pula (the name of copper coins).
Under Alexei Mikhailovich, money yards were in Novgorod, Moscow and Pskov. They were ruled by a nobleman and a clerk, and elected heads and kissers were attached to them. During the minting of copper money in the same cities, copper money yards were established. By the end of the 17th century, the money yard remained only in Moscow.
Russia did not have its own mining of gold and silver; foreign trade remained the only source of these metals. Precious metals were purchased in the form of ingots, jewelry, and also in the form of foreign coins, which were then considered primarily as a commodity. Foreign coins were accepted at cash yards, where they were converted into Russian scales, and, starting from the middle of the 17th century, the merchants were obliged to purchase all available silver “for the king”, that is, for subsequent sale at the mint.
A unique phenomenon is the short-term issue of the so-called "Efimki with signs" - the overmarking of a foreign silver coin (taller) with special hallmarks for its subsequent release into circulation. This was a desperate measure aimed at overcoming the archaism of money production, but the experiment was unsuccessful, and the old system of completely converting coins into scales had to be returned to.
Foreign gold coins were used as gifts, so their value grew before the holidays (especially Easter), royal weddings, etc. The rarest were the Portuguese gold pieces with a cross.
By the beginning of the 17th century, the situation Russian state
Agriculture
By the beginning of the 17th century, the situation Russian state was critical, it was on the brink of death. But the liberation war against the Polish-Lithuanian invaders ended in victory. The Romanovs were elected to the kingdom.
The internal and external position of the government was extremely difficult. The administrative apparatus was destroyed. Agriculture fell, the sown areas were reduced, the noble estates and estates "became in great ruin and desolated." Not only in the outskirts, but also in the central regions, it was restless. In the center, in the north and in the south, gangs of recalcitrant Cossacks were operating, the Nogai Tatars were approaching Moscow itself. The Swedes besieged Pskov, the Poles sat in Smolensk, and again in 1618 made their last attempt to impose their tsar on Moscow.
The first measures of the government were to restore the economy, the government apparatus and organize the armed forces. To this end, it was necessary to allocate service people with new estates. For the peasants, taxation was facilitated by the introduction of the so-called "living quarter", i.e. taxation of the land, taking into account the available cash yards.
The state of affairs was especially bad. finance. The entire 17th century passed for the Russian state under the sign of financial disorder. The fixed capital of the feudal state - the state land fund - was largely squandered. Due to financial need, the state even resorted to such a measure as the sale of state and palace lands.
The government was forced to apply for loans from private individuals, from eminent merchants (the Stroganovs, Sveshnikovs, Nikitnikovs, and others).
The severity of the taxation of rural, township, urban and industrial people caused frequent unrest and outright uprisings of the population. An attempt to switch to indirect taxation, for example, of salt financially did not give anything, but caused (1648) riots in Moscow and other cities.
The domestic policy of the first Romanovs was in the nature of not always successful compromise attempts to bring the state out of the state of economic ruin by at least some alleviation of the economic hardships of the most burdened and ruined economic classes - the peasantry and small townspeople.
These events often ran counter to the interests of the nobility and the higher merchant class, on which the government relied. Therefore, they were practically not carried out or even formally canceled soon after.
In the class structure and class relations of the country in the second half of the 17th century, there were changes compared to its first half. With the completion of the formation of a centralized state and with the formation single national market state power, relying on the feudal-serf nobility, was forced to reckon with the growing strength of the emerging bourgeoisie, big capital, and big merchants.
The interests of this latter did not always coincide with the interests of the feudal-local class. Therefore, in the policy of the state, its dual character is manifested, which was due to its class structure as a state of landowners and merchants.
All this gave the economy of the 17th century a transitional character.
Literature
The country was in a state of ruin. Many cities and villages were devastated and depopulated. However, gradually the economy began to recover. Russia was an agrarian country. From the 30s. 17th century the development of free lands began to the south of the "Zasmoskovsk Territory", in the Middle Volga region, in Western Siberia.
The land was owned by the state, the royal family, the church, boyars and nobles. The state lands were cultivated by black-mowed peasants, personally free, who paid taxes to the treasury. In the economy of the boyars and nobles, the labor of serfs was used. They worked on the manor's field (corvée), paid dues in food or money to the landowner and submitted to the treasury. In the 17th century the number of granted lands increased, the estate turned into a patrimony (hereditary estate). The boyars and the nobility became equal in their rights to land.
By the 30s. cities were restored as centers of crafts and trade. Their population increased. By the middle of the century, there were more than 220 cities in the Russian state, the largest (about 200 thousand inhabitants) was Moscow. Craftsmen constituted the main category of the urban population. There were up to 270 different craft specialties. Crafts also developed in the villages (Pavlovo, Kimry).
Manufactory production with the division of manual labor was gaining strength. Large state-owned manufactories in Moscow were the Cannon, Printing, Money Yards. There were also private manufactories. In 1632, the Dutch merchant A.D. Vinius, having received royal permission, built three ironworks near Tula, using water engines.
The recovery of the economy and trade was facilitated by the allocation of metalworking centers (Moscow, Tula, Kashira, Ustyuzhna-Zheleznopolskaya), woodworking (North-West and West), leather production and processing (Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Mozhaisk), soap making (Kostroma, Moscow, Yaroslavl) , salt extraction (Solvychegodsk, Sol-Iletsk).
This specialization stimulated the exchange of goods. Fairs appeared (Irbit, Nizhny Novgorod, etc.), merchants developed. The merchants were divided into three categories - "guests", trading people of the living room and cloth hundreds. The state pursued a policy of protectionism and mercantilism. In 1653, the Customs Charter was introduced, which promoted domestic trade by abolishing domestic trade fees, and the New Trade Charter of 1667 prohibited foreigners from retail trade in Russian cities. Foreign goods were subject to heavy duties.
The general result of the economic development of Russia in the 17th century was the stabilization and rise of agriculture, the growth of manufactory production, the strengthening of the country's financial position, and the expansion of trade.
