What are we talking about? Protestantism is one of the three main trends in Christianity that arose in the 16th century. during the Reformation.
How many Protestants? Protestantism ranks second among the world's currents of Christianity in terms of the number of followers after Catholics (over 600 million people; according to some sources - about 800 million people). In 92 countries, Protestantism is the largest Christian denomination, in 49 of which Protestants make up the majority of the population. In Russia, Protestants make up about 1% of the population (1.5 million people).
Where did the term come from? The term "Protestants" originated in Germany at the Speyer Reichstag in 1529, at which it was proposed to cancel the decision of the previous Reichstag that the princes and so-called. Imperial cities have the right to choose their religion until the convening of an all-German council. Supporters of the Reformation did not agree with this and, having drawn up a protest document, left the meeting. Those who signed the protest became known as Protestants. Subsequently, the term came to be applied to all followers of the Reformation.
What do Protestants believe? Protestantism is based on five "only":
a person is saved only by faith (“only by faith”, sola fide)
one should believe in only one Mediator between God and man - Christ (“only Christ”, solus Christus);
a person gains faith in Him only through the grace of God (“only grace”, sola gratia);
a person does good deeds only by the grace of God and only for God, therefore all glory should belong to Him (“only glory to God”, soli Deo gloria);
Who are considered Protestants? Protestantism, having arisen as a combination of various currents, has never been united. Its largest movements include Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism, which are commonly referred to as "classical" Protestantism or the first wave of the Reformation. Other independent denominations that arose in the 17th-19th centuries are associated with them. (the second wave of the Reformation), which differ from each other in dogma, cult and organization: Baptists, Quakers, Mennonites, Methodists, Adventists, etc. Pentecostalism, which appeared in the twentieth century, is attributed to the third wave of the Reformation.
And who is not included? Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Days (Mormons), the Christian Science Society, the Church of Christ (Boston Movement), who are genetically related to Protestantism, but in their ideological development far went beyond it (as well as Christianity in general), are usually referred to as new religious movements.
How to deal with denominations, when did someone arise and what does he believe in? Let's take a closer look at the history of Protestantism. Speaking in 1517 in Wittenberg with 95 theses against indulgences, Luther initiated the process of the Reformation and a new confession - Lutheranism. Later, Luther's doctrine of justification by faith, which became the cornerstone of Protestantism as a whole, caused a wide resonance in society and condemnation from the papacy; in 1521 Luther was excommunicated by a papal bull. Luther's special attitude to Scripture (a great contribution to culture was his translation of the Bible into German), especially to the New Testament texts as the main authority, was the reason for calling his followers evangelical Christians (later this term became synonymous with the word "Lutherans").
The second major center of the Reformation arose in Switzerland among the followers of the Zurich priest Ulrich Zwingli. Zwingli's doctrine was common features with Lutheranism - reliance on Scripture, sharp criticism of scholastic theology, the principles of "justification by faith" and "universal priesthood" (denial of the ordained priesthood as a mediator for the salvation of man, the priesthood of all believers). The main difference was a more rationalistic interpretation of the Eucharist and a more consistent criticism of church rites. From the mid 1530s. the development of reform ideas and their implementation in Switzerland are associated with the name of John Calvin and his activities in Geneva. The followers of Calvin and Zwingli became known as Calvinists. The main provisions of the teachings of Calvin - the doctrine of predestination to salvation and the inseparable connection between the state and the church.
The third major direction of Protestantism, Anglicanism, appeared during the reformation in the Church of England, initiated by the king. Henry VIII. Parliament in 1529–1536 adopted a number of documents that formed a national church independent of Rome, from 1534 subordinate to the king. The main ideologue of the English Reformation was the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Carrying out the Reformation "from above", the compromise nature of the transformations (a combination of provisions catholic church and Calvin), the preservation of the church hierarchy with apostolic succession of ordinations allows us to consider Anglicanism the most moderate Protestant current. Anglicanism is ideologically divided into so-called. the high church (which advocates the preservation of pre-Reformation worship), the low church (close to Calvinism), and the broad church (which advocates Christian unity and distances itself from doctrinal disputes). The Anglican Church is called Episcopal, as a rule, outside the UK.
From the second half of the XVI century. Differences in Protestant theory and practice led to the formation of various currents in the Reformation movement. In Calvinism, there was a division according to the principle of organizing communities into Presbyterians (managed by an elected consistory headed by a presbyter) and Congregationalists (who proclaimed the complete autonomy of communities). Communities of continental European origin, predominantly French, Dutch and Swiss, began to be called Reformed. Reformed churches generally accept central government, and some of them, unlike Presbyterians and Congregationalists, have bishops. Puritans appeared in England, advocating the cleansing of the Anglican Church from the Catholic heritage in the spirit of Calvin's ideas. The Spanish theologian Miguel Servet, who had a polemic with Calvin, became one of the first preachers of Unitarianism, a doctrine that rejects the dogma of the Trinity and the God-manhood of Jesus Christ. In the second half of the XVI century. Unitarianism spread in Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, in the 17th century. in England in the 19th century. - in USA.
The Reformation found wide support from all strata of European society, representatives of the lower classes got the opportunity to express social protest with an appeal to the biblical commandments. In Germany and Zurich, Switzerland, an active sermon on the establishment of social justice in society was started by the Anabaptists, whose doctrinal features were the requirement to baptize only adults and not to take up arms. Subjected to severe persecution from both Catholics and "classical" Protestants, the Anabaptists fled to Holland, England, the Czech Republic, Moravia (Hutterites), and later to North America. Part of the Anabaptists merged with the followers of the so-called. Moravian Church (followers of Jan Hus, a preacher who lived in the 15th century) and in the 18th century. formed a community of herrnguters. The most famous Anabaptist denomination is Mennonite (1530), named after its founder, the Dutch priest Menno Simons, whose followers emigrated as a sign of social protest. From the Mennonites in the second half of the 17th century. the Amish separated. Influenced by the ideas of the Anabaptists and Mennonites in the middle of the 17th century. Quakerism appeared in England, distinguished by the doctrine of " inner light”, unusual for the 17th century. social ethics (denial of social hierarchy, slavery, torture, death penalty, uncompromising pacifism, religious tolerance).
For Protestant theology of the 17th-18th centuries. characteristic is the idea that the church should consist only of consciously converted people who have experienced a personal meeting with Christ and active repentance. In "classical" Protestantism, the pietists (from the word pietas - "piety") in Lutheranism and the Arminians (who proclaimed free will) in Calvinism became the spokesmen for this idea. At the end of the XVII century. in Germany, a closed community of Dunkers emerged from the Pietists into a separate denomination.
In 1609, in Holland, from a group of English Puritans, a community of followers of John Smith was formed - Baptists, who borrowed the Anabaptist doctrine of adult baptism. Subsequently, the Baptists were divided into "general" and "private". In 1639, Baptism appeared in North America and is now the largest Protestant denomination in the United States. Famous preachers and writers are Baptist followers: Charles Spurgeon (1834–1892), Martin Luther King, Billy Graham (b. 1918).
The main feature of Methodism, which emerged from Anglicanism in Great Britain at the beginning. XVIII century, is the doctrine of "sanctification": the free conversion of a person to Christ takes place in two stages: first, God sanctifies a person with the righteousness of Christ ("justifying grace"), then gives him the gift of holiness ("sanctifying grace"). Methodism quickly spread, primarily in the United States and in English-speaking countries, thanks to peculiar forms of preaching - mass worship under open sky, the Institute of Itinerant Preachers, home groups, and annual conferences of all ministers. In 1865, the Salvation Army, which is an international charitable organization, appeared in Great Britain on the basis of Methodism. The Church of the Nazarene (1895) and the Wesleyan Church (1968) also emerged from Methodism, reproaching Methodism for excessive doctrinal liberalism.
Reformation processes also affected Orthodox Russia. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. among the Russians appeared the so-called. Spiritual Christianity - Christophers (whips), Dukhobors, Molokans, whose doctrine was partly similar to the Protestant one (in particular, the rejection of icons, the veneration of saints, the rejection of rituals, etc.).
The denomination of the Plymouth Brethren (Darbists), which appeared in Great Britain in the 1820s. from Anglicanism, adheres to the doctrine according to which the history of mankind is divided into separate. periods, in each of which the characteristic law of God operates (dispensationalism). In the 1840s there was a split into "open" and "closed" Darbists.
Adventism appeared in the 1830s. in the USA based on the interpretation of biblical texts about the Second Coming of Jesus Christ and the possibility of its exact calculation. In 1863, the organization of the largest current in Adventism, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, was created. During the 1st World War reformist Adventists stood out, dissatisfied with the partial rejection of Adventists from pacifism. Seventh-day Adventists are distinguished by their denial of the immortality of the soul and eternal torment (sinners will simply be destroyed during the Last Judgment), the veneration of Saturday as the "seventh day" of serving God, the recognition of the restoration of the gift of prophecy and visions through the founder of the church, Ellen White, as well as a number of food prohibitions and prescriptions healthy lifestyle (“health reform”).
A distinctive feature of the New Apostolic Church, which arose in the second half of the XIX century. in the UK based on the communities of the so-called. Irvingian (a community that broke away from the Presbyterians), is the cult of "apostles" - the leaders of the church, whose word is the same doctrinal authority as the Bible.
In the 19th century there was a tendency to unite the Protestant churches. In the English-speaking world, this was facilitated by the so-called. revivalism is a movement that called Christians to repentance and personal conversion. The result was the emergence of the Disciples of Christ (Church of Christ), the so-called. Evangelicals and United Churches. The Disciples of Christ (Church of Christ) appeared in the early 1830s. in the United States from Presbyterianism. This denomination included Protestants who proclaimed a complete rejection of any dogmas, symbols and institutions not specified in the New Testament. The disciples of Christ allow differences of opinion even on such important issues as the Trinity, believing that this and many other dogmas are not clearly explained in Scripture. Evangelicals that appeared in the United States in the 19th century preach non-denominational personal conversion, "birth again" with a special act of God changing the believer's heart, faith in the sacrifice of Christ on the cross, and active missionary work. The conservative wing of the Evangelicals created dispensationalism, the liberal wing created social evangelism (changing social reality in order to bring it closer to the Kingdom of God). On the basis of evangelicalism, fundamentalism arose (named after a series of pamphlets "Fundamentals", published in 1910-1915). Fundamentalists insisted on the absolute authenticity of common Christian dogmas and a literalist reading of the Bible. so-called. neo-evangelicalism emerged in the 1940s, uniting those who criticized liberal evangelicals for moral relativism and fundamentalism for closedness, and advocated active preaching modern means. Neo-evangelicalism has given rise to the so-called in the United States. megachurches - church organizations in which there is a "center" (the main church, headed by a leader, which develops a style of worship and preaching, manuals for Sunday schools and social work etc.) and "branches" (numerous church communities that are in direct and rigid submission to the "center").
In the middle of the XIX - early. XX centuries appeared so-called. united churches as a result of the merger of different Protestant denominations - Lutherans, Anglicans, Reformed, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, etc. In most cases, the merger was voluntary, sometimes imposed by the state. The unifying basis of these churches is their historical involvement in the Reformation and doctrinal affinity. At the end of the XIX century. appeared so-called. free churches- Protestant communities that exist independently of state Protestant churches.
The development of the theology of Protestantism in the XX century. characterized by the ideas that the mystical gifts of the ancient church should return to the church and that Christianity should be adapted to non-European cultures. So, at the beginning of the XX century. from the Methodist group "Movement of holiness" Pentecostalism was formed, which is characterized by an exclusive role in the church of the Holy Spirit, the gift of glossolalia (pronouncing specific sounds reminiscent of unknown languages during prayer), etc. In the 1960s and 70s Pentecostalism received a new impetus for development due to representatives of Christian denominations using Pentecostal practices. Under the influence of the so-called. Pentecost in the 20th century original Asian and African churches arose, characterized by a combination of Christian and pagan practices.
Scripture is proclaimed to be the only source of doctrine. The Bible was translated into national languages, its study and application in own life became important task every believer. The attitude towards Holy Tradition is ambiguous - from rejection, on the one hand, to acceptance and reverence, but, in any case, with a reservation - Tradition (as, indeed, any other doctrinal opinions, including our own) is authoritative, since it is based on Scripture , and to the extent that it is based on Scripture. It is this reservation (and not the desire to simplify and cheapen the cult) that is the key to the refusal of a number of Protestant churches and denominations from this or that doctrine or practice.
Protestants teach that original sin perverted human nature. Therefore, a person, although he remains fully capable of good deeds, cannot be saved by his own merits, but only by faith in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ.
Every Christian, being elected and baptized, receives a "consecration" to communion with God, the right to preach and worship without intermediaries (the Church and the clergy). In Protestantism, the dogmatic distinction between the priest and the laity is thus removed, and the church hierarchy is simplified. Confession and remission of sins is not a sacrament, while repentance directly before God is very important. Celibacy, as well as compulsory marriage for priests and pastors, is not regulated in any way. Protestantism also rejected the authority of the Pope and abandoned the idea of monasticism as a special saving field. The principle of universal priesthood laid the foundation for the democratic organization of communities (equality of laity and clergy, election, accountability, etc.).
In practice, priests and pastors usually go through special training and are professionals. Hierarchy, in one form or another (formally or informally), exists at least to maintain order. There may also be monasteries in the form of communes.
Protestantism limited the number of Sacraments, leaving only Baptism and Communion. Besides, Protestants don't see special meaning in prayers for the dead, prayers to the saints and numerous feasts in their honor. At the same time, respect for the saints is respectful - as examples of a righteous life and good teachers. The worship of relics is generally not practiced as unscriptural. The attitude towards the veneration of images is ambiguous: from rejection as idolatry, to the teaching that the honor given to the image goes back to the prototype (determined by the adoption or non-adoption of decisions of the Ecumenical Councils).
Protestant prayer houses, as a rule, are free from magnificent decoration, images and statues, which, however, is not an end in itself, and comes from the belief that such decoration is not necessary. A church building can be any building that is rented or purchased on equal terms with worldly organizations. Protestant worship is centered on preaching, praying, and singing psalms and hymns in national languages. Some churches, such as the Lutheran, place a lot of emphasis on the sacrament, which may require confirmation for admission.
| Reformation
|
| Reformation |
Main article: History of Protestantism
The original forms of Protestantism were Lutheranism, Zwinglianism, Calvinism, Anabaptism, Mennonism, Anglicanism. In the future, a number of other movements arise - Baptists, Adventists, Methodists, Quakers, Pentecostals, the Salvation Army and a number of others. The formation of most of these movements took place under the sign of "religious revival" (rivalism), a return to the ideals of early Christianity and the Reformation. They all differ from old or liturgical Protestantism in their preference for free preaching and active evangelistic missionary activity.
The theology of Protestantism has gone through a number of stages in its development. This is the orthodox theology of the sixteenth century. (Martin Luther, J. Calvin, F. Melanchthon), non-Protestant, or liberal theology of the 18th-19th centuries. (F. Schleiermacher, E. Troelch, A. Harnack), “crisis theology”, or dialectical theology that appeared after the First World War (K. Barth, P. Tillich, R. Bultmann), radical, or “new” theology, spread after World War II (D. Bonhoeffer).
The final formation of Protestant theology took place by the middle of the 17th century, and is set out in the following religious documents of the Reformation:
characteristic feature classical Protestant theology is a very strict attitude to what is considered essential - faith, the sacraments, salvation, the doctrine of the church, and a less strict attitude to the external, ritual side of church life (adiaphora), which often gives rise to big variety forms while observing the strictness of the doctrine.
Later currents often develop their own doctrine, only partly correlating with the classical theological legacy. Thus, for example, Adventists accept the prophecies of Ellen White. Pentecostals, unlike other Christians, pay very significant attention to "speaking in other tongues" (glossolalia), considering this a sign of "Baptism in the Holy Spirit."
Currently, Protestantism is most widespread in the Scandinavian countries, the USA, Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Canada, and Switzerland. The United States is rightfully considered the world center of Protestantism, where the headquarters of the Baptists, Pentecostals, Adventists and some other Protestant churches and denominations have settled. Modern Protestantism is characterized by a desire for integration, which found expression in the creation in 1948 of the World Council of Churches.
Protestantism is one of the few religions that is rapidly spreading around the world today. To date, 15-20% of the population of Brazil, 15-20% of the population of Chile, about 20% of the population of South Korea have adopted Protestantism. According to Sabri Khizmetli, a member of the Eurasian Islamic Council of Kazakhstan, over 500,000 Muslims of Central Asia have converted to Protestantism over the past 15 years.
There have been debates about Protestantism by other Christians from the very beginning of its existence.
Major points of disagreement or criticism of Protestantism by Orthodox and Catholics. Arguments from supporters of Protestantism highlighted in italics.
The most fundamental shortcoming of the Protestant doctrine, Orthodox and Catholics consider the denial of the role of Holy Tradition, which it has in Orthodoxy and Catholicism. In their opinion, thanks to the Holy Tradition, the Holy Fathers selected (from many dubious apocryphal books) a list (canon) of inspired books of the New Testament. In other words, Protestants use a set of canons, but deny the traditions by which they were adopted. The Protestants themselves deny the role of Holy Tradition in the formation of the canon, believing that it was formed under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
The teaching of Protestantism that only faith and the grace of God is sufficient for salvation is rejected by Catholics and Orthodox.
According to many Orthodox and Catholics, Protestantism does not have an unbroken apostolic succession. The absence of apostolic succession is not recognized by the Protestants themselves, for example, the Anglican Church and the Lutheran churches of all Scandinavian states have apostolic succession, since the churches in these countries were formed by the complete separation of local dioceses (together with bishops, priests and flocks) from the RCC. In the opinion of many Protestants, apostolic succession in itself is optional or obligatory, but not the only condition of the Church of God - there are cases when Orthodox bishops became schismatics and created their own churches (for example, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kiev Patriarchate).
Protestants do not recognize the acts of the Ecumenical Councils. De facto all Protestants recognize the decisions of the first two Ecumenical Councils: the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople ( Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses Those who do not recognize them are not considered Christians by Protestants).
Most Protestants reject monasticism, icons, and the veneration of saints. Lutherans and Anglicans have monasteries, saints and icons are also not denied by these denominations, but there is no icon veneration in the form that is characteristic of Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Reformed Protestant icons also deny monasticism.
According to critics, the absence of rites and rituals reveals the Protestant religion as inferior,., flawed and unstable, leads Protestantism to endless fragmentation into many denominations, and the spirit of rationalism to complete atheism (which developed precisely in predominantly Protestant countries. Protestant rational collectivism neglects obedience to God and is expressed in sinful and shameful human pleasing, for example: the Protestants of Western Europe crown homosexuals, allow abortions, drugs, euthanasia (suicide), etc.
These phenomena are now becoming more and more the norm in the developed countries of the West and have an increasingly strong corrupting influence on church life in those countries (there is even a corresponding term for these manifestations - “secularization of the Church”). There are more and more such "Protestant" churches in Western society every year. However, this is already marginal Protestantism, which has nothing in common either with classical Protestantism or with Christianity in general. "By their fruits you will know them." Nowadays, even some classical Protestant churches are marginalized, for example, the Lutheran Church of Sweden (which, as mentioned above, has apostolic succession) approves same-sex marriages. The Protestant churches of the CIS and Baltic states are much more conservative in these matters; modern Western trends have touched them in lesser degree.
Just as often, Protestant churches are criticized by atheists and representatives of traditional denominations for intrusive self-promotion and proselytism. Although proselytism is condemned by the World Council of Churches, in practice the missionaries of some Protestant churches are actively promoting their creeds among representatives of traditional denominations. For example, the already mentioned pastor of the New Generation Church A. S. Ledyaev, formally tolerant of the leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church, regularly harshly criticizes Orthodoxy in his sermons and speeches, often descending to banal attacks on the Orthodox Church; he also repeatedly called himself an apostle and called to build a society where every sphere of life would be led by people of a certain denomination; in voting for the best figures in Latvia, he called residents of other countries to vote for himself. Naturally, such behavior of a well-known Protestant pastor inevitably becomes the object of counter-criticism. A representative of another current of Protestantism, Baptist Tom Carl Wheeler, in his book "Pseudo-Christianity" points out that "the creeds of such large ecumenical groups as liberal Protestantism in the World Council of Churches, the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox (Russian and Greek) churches contradict the basic fundamental doctrines of the Holy Scriptures", thereby actually equating the named christian churches(including Protestant, which is part of the WCC) to pseudo-Christian religious organizations.
Mass “evangelizations” or crusades conducted by some prominent Protestant ministers, notably the American preacher Benny Hinn.
Consistent critics of the proselytizing methods of Protestants and Protestantism in general are A. I. Osipov (Russian theologian) and A. L. Dvorkin (anti-cultist, sectarian, activist).
Human rights societies are currently criticizing mainly conservative Protestant churches (including the New Generation Church) for prohibiting
Unity source of faith - St. Scripture.
Obviously, the source of faith for Protestants is information that can only be gleaned from 1 book - the Bible. For the Orthodox, the source of faith is the living relationship of Christians that has not stopped for 1000 years. communities with God. These relationships gave birth to all the Tradition, including the Bible, and only by becoming a participant in these relationships, one can fully understand what they have generated. Some branches of Protestantism are forced to allegorically (Allegorical - allegorical.) interpret the texts of the Holy. Scriptures, because otherwise it becomes impossible to reconcile the Bible with their creed.
Only faith saves, not works. True faith, however, is not inactive and manifests itself in good deeds.
The thesis about salvation by faith alone was born in a dispute with Luther's contemporary Catholics. ideas that salvation can be earned by doing some deeds: almsgiving, pilgrimage, etc. At the same time, the Protestants lost sight of the fact that salvation is our approach to God in repentance, fidelity and love, which are achieved with great efforts, as Christ Himself said: Heavenly power is taken, and those who use force delight [i.e. acquire] it” (Matthew 11:12).
All who believe in Christ are already saved. Nothing can be added to the accomplished salvation. Therefore, monasticism is rejected.
Of course, salvation is understood here as an external decision of God in relation to man. This understanding is completely borrowed from the legal. Catholic representations. The only difference is that this solution no longer needs to be earned. Salvation, according to the experience of the Church, is the entry of a person into the life of God, and not a decision made from above. Monasticism is primarily dedicated to such an approach to God. Luther's disillusionment with contemporary monasticism speaks of the loss of Catholicism. monasticism of true guidelines. That is why Luther did not find peace in his monastery - apparently, there was no spirit of God's love there, which fills all true monks.
Since all who believe are saved, the prayer for the departed is cancelled.
Thus, the one Church of the living and the dead is divided, where everyone prays for everyone. But we have countless testimonies of helping the departed with prayer and commemoration at the Liturgy and even before being taken out of hell.
Protestantism does not believe in the inviolability of a single Church that preserves apostolic succession. All true believing Christians are saints and priests. Therefore, there is no veneration of saints and the sacrament of the priesthood. Every Protestant. the church in its own way determines the election and appointment of elders, i.e. those who lead the worship of the community and preach the sermon.
Desiring the restoration of the apostolic purity of the faith, the Protestants actually renounced the apostolic succession.
Of the sacraments, only baptism, communion and (sometimes) permission from sins are recognized.
Only Lutheranism has preserved the belief that the Body and Blood of the Savior is actually present in the bread and wine of the Communion. All other Protestants believe that in their communion there is no real Body and Blood of Christ, but only a symbol. The final break of Protestants with Tradition leads them to a complete loss of the sense of what Christ was incarnated for - the actual presence throughout human history of the Body of Christ as Communion and the Church.
All Protestants claim to be replicating the life of Christians in apostolic times.
This is achieved by "jumping" into the past through the entire Tradition. Jumping, in fact, to the ideas of the founder of this or that Protestant. currents. Historical The Church is rejected, they try to speculatively replace it with some kind of "invisible" true Church, allegedly mysteriously existing for centuries.
At the prayer meetings of Protestants, the main place is given to the sermon. All church. splendor: icons, ancient hymns, the vestments of priests, the solemnity of divine services, the decoration of the temple, and much more - were eliminated.
Protestantism- 1 out of 3, along with Orthodoxy and Catholicism, the main directions of Christianity, which is a collection of independent churches, church unions and denominations, connected by their origin with the Reformation - a broad anti-Catholic. movement of the 16th century. in Europe.
In the present time exist:
1. a conservative form of Protestantism,
2. liberal form of Protestantism
Protestantism arose in medieval Europe in opposition to the Catholic Church, during the movement of the Reformation, the ideal of which was a return to apostolic Christianity.
According to the Reformationists, Catholicism has departed from the original Christians. principles as a result of numerous layers of medieval scholastic theology and ritual.
Religious leader. revolution was Luther. Luther's 1st open speech against the Church. politics took place in 1517 - he publicly condemned the sale of indulgences, then nailed 95 theses on church doors outlining his position.
In 1526, the Speyer Reichstag, at the request of a German. Lutheran princes suspended the Edict of Worms against Luther. But the 2nd Speyer Reichstag of 1529 canceled this decision. In response to this, 6 princes and 14 free cities of St. Roman. Empire at the Reichstag in Germany, the "Speier Protest" was filed. According to the name of this document, the supporters of the Reformation were called Protestants, and the totality of the non-Catholics that arose as a result of the Reformation. denominations - "Protestantism".
Protestantism divides common Christians. ideas about the existence of God, His trinity, the immortality of the soul, heaven and hell (while rejecting the Catholic doctrine of purgatory). Protestants believe that a person can receive the remission of sins by faith in Jesus Christ (faith in His death for the sins of all people and in His resurrection from the dead).
Protestant Christians believe that the Bible is one. source of Christians. dogma, its study and application in their own. life is considered an important task for every believer. Protestants are making efforts to make the Bible available to people in their national languages.
Holy Tradition, according to Protestant views, is authoritative insofar as it is based on the Bible and confirmed by the Bible. A similar criterion is typical for evaluating any other religious. teachings, opinions and practices, including their own. Views and practices that are not supported by the teachings of the Bible are not considered authoritative and are not binding.
Protestantism has determined the fundamental 3 positions:
1. salvation by personal faith,
2. the priesthood of all believers,
The final formation of the Protestant. theology occurred by the middle. 17th century, and set forth in the following religious documents of the Reformation:
Heidelberg Catechism 1563 (Germany)
Book of Concord 1580 (Germany)
· Canons of the Synod of Dordrecht 1618-1619. (Dordrecht, The Netherlands)
· Westminster Confession of Faith 1643-1649. (Westminster Abbey, London, UK).
Protestant theology has gone through a number of stages in its development:
1. orthodox theology of the 16th century. (Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, Melanchthon),
2. non-protestant, or liberal. theology 18-19 centuries (F. Schleiermacher, E. Troelch, A. Harnack),
3. "crisis theology", or dialectical theology, which appeared after the 1st world. war (K. Barth, P. Tillich, R. Bultman),
4. radical, or "new" theology, which spread after the 2nd World War (D. Bonhoeffer).
A characteristic feature of the classic Protestant. theology is a strict attitude to what is considered essential - faith, sacraments, salvation, the doctrine of the church, and a less strict attitude to the external, ritual side of church life (adiaphora), which often gives rise to a wide variety of forms while observing the rigor of the doctrine.
In different Protestant. directions of the concept of rite and sacrament can have different content. If the sacraments are recognized, then there are 2 of them - baptism and communion. In other cases, these actions are recognized only as symbolic. meaning. In any case, they require a conscious attitude, so there may be a custom to perform baptism at a more or less mature age, and to undergo special training (confirmation) before communion. Marriage, confession (and so on. The like) in any case is considered just a rite. In addition, Protestants do not see the point in prayers for the dead, prayers to the saints and numerous holidays in their honor. At the same time, respect for the saints is respectful - as examples of a righteous life and good teachers. Relic worship is not practiced as unscriptural. The attitude towards the veneration of images is ambiguous: from rejection as idolatry, to the teaching that the honor given to the image goes back to the prototype (determined by the adoption or non-adoption of the decisions of the II Nicene (7 Ecumenical) Council).
prayer houses Protestants are free from lavish decoration, images and statues, which comes from the belief that such decoration is not necessary. Any building can serve as a church building, which is rented or acquired on equal terms with worldly organizations. Protestant worship is focused on preaching, praying, and singing psalms and hymns in national languages, as well as on communion, to which certain trends (for example, Lutherans) attach special importance.
The most fundamental defect of the Protestant. Doctrine Orthodox and Catholics consider the denial of the role of the Holy. Traditions, to-ruyu it has in Orthodoxy and Catholicism. According to them, thanks to St. Tradition by the Holy Fathers and a list (canon) of the inspired books of the New Testament was selected (from many dubious apocryphal books). Dr. words Protestants use a set of canons but deny the traditions by which they were adopted. The Protestants themselves deny the role of the Holy. Traditions in the formation of the canon, considering that the canon was formed under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
Many Catholics and Orthodox believe that Protestants reject St. Tradition in full. But this is not the case for all Protestants. In reality, they scrupulously follow only the Holy. Scripture only Mennonites, Messianic Jews and part of the Baptists. The majority of Protestants who recognize a certain role of the Holy. Traditions in Christianity, while in the 1st place they put the Holy. Scripture, not Holy. Tradition as an interpreter of St. Scriptures. Traditions that contradict Scripture (different denominations understand these contradictions differently) are not taken into account.
The teaching of Protestantism: the soul of a person is saved only through faith in Jesus Christ as his savior, (lat. sola fides ) and through the grace of God, which is expressed in the fact that Jesus died for the sins of every person, and not through good works (Bible, James 2:17-20), Catholics and Orthodox are rejected.
According to many Orthodox and Catholics, Protestantism does not have an unbroken apostolic succession. Absence of an apostle. succession is not recognized by the Protestants themselves, for example, the Anglicans have apostolic succession. churches and Lutherans. churches of all Scandinavian states, because churches in these countries were formed by secession of local. dioceses (together with bishops, priests and flock) from the RCC. In the opinion of many Protestants, apostolic succession in itself is optional or obligatory, but not unities. condition of the Church of God - there are cases when Orthodox. bishops became schismatics and created their own. churches.
Protestants do not recognize the acts of 3-7 Ecumenical Councils. De facto, all Protestants recognize the decisions of the first 2 Ecumenical Councils: the 1st Council of Nicaea and the 1st Council of Constantinople, being trinitarians and professing the Apostolic, Nicene and Athanasian creeds. That is why Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses do not consider themselves Protestants (for the same reason, other Protestants do not consider them Christians).
Most Protestants reject monasticism, icons, and the veneration of saints. Lutherans and Anglicans have monasteries, saints and icons are also not denied by these denominations, but there is no icon veneration in the form that is characteristic of Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Reformed Protestant icons also deny monasticism.
According to Orthodox critics, the absence of the Sacraments characteristic of Orthodoxy makes a Protestant. religion "inferior, flawed and unstable", leads Protestantism to fragmentation into many denominations, and the spirit of rationalism to complete atheism (which developed in Protestant countries).
Protestantism is one of the main, along with Orthodoxy and Catholicism, directions in Christianity. He broke away from Catholicism during the Reformation of the 16th century. It unites many independent currents of churches and sects. Protestantism is characterized by the absence of a fundamental opposition of the clergy to the laity, the rejection of a complex church hierarchy, a simplified cult, the absence of monasticism, celibacy; in Protestantism there is no cult of the Virgin, saints, angels, icons, the number of sacraments is reduced to two (baptism and communion). The main source of doctrine is Holy Scripture. In the XIX-XX centuries. some areas of Protestantism are characterized by the desire to give a rationalistic interpretation of the Bible, the preaching of religion without God (that is, only as a moral doctrine). Protestant churches play leading role in the ecumenical movement. Protestantism is spread mainly in the USA, Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavian countries and Finland, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Latvia, Estonia. The total number of adherents of Protestantism is about 325 million people. The organizational forms of modern Protestantism are very diverse - from the church as public institution(in Sweden, for example) to the almost complete absence of any unifying organization (for example, among the Quakers); from large confessional (for example, the World Union of Baptists) and even interfaith associations (ecumenical movement) to small isolated sects.
Lutheranism is the largest branch of Protestantism. Founded by Martin Luther in the 16th century. Lutheranism first formulated the main provisions of Protestantism, but Lutheranism brought them to life (especially in church organization) less consistently than Calvinism.
Calvinism - one of the three main directions of Protestantism (along with Lutheranism and Anglicanism), which adopted the ideas of John Calvin. From Geneva, Calvinism spread to France (Huguenots), the Netherlands, Scotland and England (Puritans). Under the influence of Calvinism, the Dutch (XVI century) and English (XVII century) revolutions took place. For Calvinism, the following are especially characteristic: the recognition of only Holy Scripture, the exceptional significance of the doctrine of predestination (the predestination of a person’s life, his salvation or condemnation, coming from God’s will; success in professional activity serves as confirmation of his chosenness), the denial of the need for the help of the clergy in saving people, the simplification of church rituals. Modern adherents of Calvinism - Calvinists, Reformed, Presbyterians, Congregationalists
Anglicanism is one of the main directions of Protestantism, in the dogma of which the provisions of Protestantism about salvation by personal faith and Catholicism about the saving power of the church are combined. According to the cult and organizational principles, the Anglican Church is close to the Catholic one, it is the state church in Great Britain. The head of the Church of England is the king, who appoints the bishops. The Primate of the Anglican Church is the Archbishop of Canterbury. A significant proportion of bishops are members of the House of Lords.
Old Catholicism - a trend that broke away from Catholicism after the Vatican Council of 1869-1870; originated in Germany on the basis of the denial of the dogma of papal infallibility. The dogma of the Old Catholics occupies an intermediate position between Catholicism and Protestantism. Preserving a number of moments from the Catholic cult, the Old Catholics do not recognize the primacy of the Pope, reject the veneration of icons, church relics, mandatory celibacy for the clergy, etc. In this, the Old Catholics are especially close to the Anglicans.
Mennonites are a Christian sect. They preach humility, non-violence, believe in the second coming of Christ. Characteristic of the Mennonites is the baptism of people in adulthood. The church hierarchy is denied, communities have independent management.
Baptism is one of the branches of Protestantism. The Baptists simplified cult and church organization. Not recognizing the sacrament, they consider baptism and communion as church rites without mystical meaning. Baptism is performed on adults.
Quakers are a Protestant sect that originated in England in the 17th century. They deny the institution of priests, church sacraments, external rituals. believe in continuous improvement and development of the spiritual nature of man. They demand unconditional honesty in relation to each other, compulsory labor, strict observance of marital relations, respect for elders, etc. Pacifism is preached, charity is widely practiced.
Methodism is one of the major church formations within the framework of Protestantism. The Methodist Church arose in the 18th century, splitting from the Anglican Church, demanding a consistent, methodical observance of religious precepts. Methodists preach religious humility, patience.
The Salvation Army is an international religious and philanthropic organization created in 1865 and reorganized in 1878 according to a military model by the Methodist preacher W. Boots, who became its first general, for religious propaganda among the poorest sections of the population of London. Now operating in many countries around the world. Born out of Methodism, The Salvation Army shares the basic principles of its doctrine, and in particular the doctrine of salvation. Baptism and Communion do not count necessary conditions to achieve eternal bliss. It is believed that care should be taken not only about the salvation of the soul and otherworldly existence, but also about how to make life easier for the lower strata of society. To this end, public canteens with free food have been set up, brigades helping alcoholics and prisoners have been set up, campaigns against prostitution, etc. have been carried out.
Adventists are a Protestant church that originated in the 1930s. 19th century They preach the nearness of the second coming of Christ and the onset of the "thousand-year kingdom of God" on Earth. The most numerous are Seventh-day Adventists.
The Jehovists, or the Society of Jehovah's Witnesses*, is a Protestant sect founded in 1872 in the United States. Jehovists recognize one God Jehovah, and Jesus Christ - the offspring of Jehovah and the executor of his will; reject the main Christian dogmas (the trinity of God, the immortality of the soul, etc.). According to the views of the Jehovists, the earthly world is the kingdom of Satan, in a close battle (Armageddon) between him and Jehovah, humanity will perish, with the exception of the Jehovists themselves, the kingdom of God will be established on earth.
Mormons, or "Latter Day Saints" - a religious sect founded in the United States in the 1st half of the 19th century. The main source of doctrine - the Book of Mormon "(supposedly a record of the mysterious writings of the Israeli prophet Mormon, who moved to America) - includes the provisions of Judaism, Christianity and other religions. According to the Mormons, their teaching is designed to give a person happiness both on earth and in the afterlife. The world, development obey the "law of progress", and life strives for greater perfection. This also applies to God. Man is "God in the bud". The Fall was programmed by God. The essence of evil, of sin, is not disobedience to God, but rebellion against the law of progress.” Mormons expect the imminent end of the world, the final battle with Satan. See themselves as the chosen people of Israel. They carry out missionary activity all over the world, but they are hostile to other churches and the ecumenical movement.
Christian Science is a religious organization with a Protestant orientation. Its main principles are that curing people from all kinds of diseases is possible only with the help of religious faith. Medical methods of treatment are categorically rejected, since they allegedly prevent a correct understanding of the nature of people's illnesses, their suffering and even death. The cause of all evil is the widespread misconception that matter exists as objective reality. It is enough to give up this delusion, resort to prayer and faith in order to be cured of any ailment.
Pentecostals are a Protestant movement, the basis of which is the myth of the descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles on the 50th day after the ascension of Christ, as a result of which they received the "gift of prophecy" - "speaking in foreign languages." In the Pentecostal creed great place occupies the preaching of the nearness of the second coming, the end of the world and the millennium reign of Christ. Pentecostals observe the rites of baptism and the baptism of prayer, great importance give a mystical communion with God. Pentecostalism is characterized by a mystical atmosphere of prayers, belief in phenomena and visions, the cult of prophets and prophetesses.
How many Protestants? Protestantism ranks second among the world's currents of Christianity in terms of the number of followers after Catholics (over 600 million people; according to some sources - about 800 million people). In 92 countries, Protestantism is the largest Christian denomination, in 49 of which Protestants make up the majority of the population. In Russia, Protestants make up about 1% of the population (1.5 million people).
Where did the term come from? The term "Protestants" originated in Germany at the Speyer Reichstag in 1529, at which it was proposed to cancel the decision of the previous Reichstag that the princes and so-called. Imperial cities have the right to choose their religion until the convening of an all-German council. Supporters of the Reformation did not agree with this and, having drawn up a protest document, left the meeting. Those who signed the protest became known as Protestants. Subsequently, the term came to be applied to all followers of the Reformation.
What do Protestants believe? Protestantism is based on five "only":
Who are considered Protestants? Protestantism, having arisen as a combination of various currents, has never been united. Its largest movements include Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism, which are commonly referred to as "classical" Protestantism or the first wave of the Reformation. Other independent denominations that arose in the 17th-19th centuries are associated with them. (the second wave of the Reformation), which differ from each other in dogma, cult and organization: Baptists, Quakers, Mennonites, Methodists, Adventists, etc. Pentecostalism, which appeared in the twentieth century, is attributed to the third wave of the Reformation.
And who is not included? Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Days (Mormons), the Christian Science Society, the Church of Christ (Boston Movement), who are genetically related to Protestantism, but in their ideological development far went beyond it (as well as Christianity in general), are usually referred to as new religious movements.
How to deal with denominations, when did someone arise and what does he believe in? Let's take a closer look at the history of Protestantism. Speaking in 1517 in Wittenberg with 95 theses against indulgences, Luther initiated the process of the Reformation and a new confession - Lutheranism. Later, Luther's doctrine of justification by faith, which became the cornerstone of Protestantism as a whole, caused a wide resonance in society and condemnation from the papacy; in 1521 Luther was excommunicated by a papal bull. Luther's special attitude to Scripture (his translation of the Bible into German was a great contribution to culture), especially to the New Testament texts as the main authority, caused his followers to be called evangelical Christians (later this term became synonymous with the word "Lutherans").
The second major center of the Reformation arose in Switzerland among the followers of the Zurich priest Ulrich Zwingli. Zwingli's doctrine had common features with Lutheranism - reliance on Scripture, sharp criticism of scholastic theology, the principles of "justification by faith" and "universal priesthood" (denial of the ordained priesthood as an intermediary for the salvation of man, the priesthood of all believers). The main difference was a more rationalistic interpretation of the Eucharist and a more consistent criticism of church rites. From the mid 1530s. the development of reform ideas and their implementation in Switzerland are associated with the name of John Calvin and his activities in Geneva. The followers of Calvin and Zwingli became known as Calvinists. The main provisions of the teachings of Calvin - the doctrine of predestination to salvation and the inseparable connection between the state and the church.
The third major direction of Protestantism, Anglicanism, appeared in the course of reformation in the Church of England, initiated by King Henry VIII. Parliament in 1529–1536 adopted a number of documents that formed a national church independent of Rome, from 1534 subordinate to the king. The main ideologue of the English Reformation was the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. The carrying out of the Reformation "from above", the compromise nature of the transformations (a combination of the provisions of the Catholic Church and Calvin), the preservation of the church hierarchy with the apostolic succession of ordinations allow us to consider Anglicanism the most moderate Protestant movement. Anglicanism is ideologically divided into so-called. the high church (which advocates the preservation of pre-Reformation worship), the low church (close to Calvinism), and the broad church (which advocates Christian unity and distances itself from doctrinal disputes). The Anglican Church is called Episcopal, as a rule, outside the UK.
From the second half of the XVI century. Differences in Protestant theory and practice led to the formation of various currents in the Reformation movement. In Calvinism, there was a division according to the principle of organizing communities into Presbyterians (managed by an elected consistory headed by a presbyter) and Congregationalists (who proclaimed the complete autonomy of communities). Communities that recognize, unlike the Presbyterians, the episcopate, and unlike the Congregationalists, centralized government, began to be called Reformed. Puritans appeared in England, advocating the cleansing of the Anglican Church from the Catholic heritage in the spirit of Calvin's ideas. The Spanish theologian Miguel Servet, who had a polemic with Calvin, became one of the first preachers of Unitarianism, a doctrine that rejects the dogma of the Trinity and the God-manhood of Jesus Christ. In the second half of the XVI century. Unitarianism spread in Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, in the 17th century. in England in the 19th century. - in USA.
The Reformation found wide support from all strata of European society, representatives of the lower classes got the opportunity to express social protest with an appeal to the biblical commandments. In Germany and Zurich, Switzerland, an active sermon on the establishment of social justice in society was started by the Anabaptists, whose doctrinal features were the requirement to baptize only adults and not to take up arms. Subjected to severe persecution from both Catholics and "classical" Protestants, the Anabaptists fled to Holland, England, the Czech Republic, Moravia (Hutterites), and later to North America. Part of the Anabaptists merged with the followers of the so-called. Moravian Church (followers of Jan Hus, a preacher who lived in the 15th century) and in the 18th century. formed a community of herrnguters. The most famous Anabaptist denomination is Mennonite (1530), named after its founder, the Dutch priest Menno Simons, whose followers emigrated as a sign of social protest. From the Mennonites in the second half of the 17th century. the Amish separated. Influenced by the ideas of the Anabaptists and Mennonites in the middle of the 17th century. In England, Quakerism appeared, distinguished by the doctrine of an "inner light", unusual for the 17th century. social ethics (denial of social hierarchy, slavery, torture, death penalty, uncompromising pacifism, religious tolerance).
For Protestant theology of the 17th-18th centuries. characteristic is the idea that the church should consist only of consciously converted people who have experienced a personal meeting with Christ and active repentance. In "classical" Protestantism, the pietists (from the word pietas - "piety") in Lutheranism and the Arminians (who proclaimed free will) in Calvinism became the spokesmen for this idea. At the end of the XVII century. in Germany, a closed community of Dunkers emerged from the Pietists into a separate denomination.
In 1609, in Holland, from a group of English Puritans, a community of followers of John Smith was formed - Baptists, who borrowed the Anabaptist doctrine of adult baptism. Subsequently, the Baptists were divided into "general" and "private". In 1639, Baptism appeared in North America and is now the largest Protestant denomination in the United States. Famous preachers and writers are Baptist followers: Charles Spurgeon (1834–1892), Martin Luther King, Billy Graham (b. 1918).
The main feature of Methodism, which emerged from Anglicanism in Great Britain at the beginning. XVIII century, is the doctrine of "sanctification": the free conversion of a person to Christ takes place in two stages: first, God sanctifies a person with the righteousness of Christ ("justifying grace"), then gives him the gift of holiness ("sanctifying grace"). Methodism quickly spread, primarily in the United States and in English-speaking countries, thanks to its peculiar forms of preaching - mass open-air worship, the institution of itinerant preachers, home groups, as well as annual conferences of all ministers. In 1865, the Salvation Army, which is an international charitable organization, appeared in Great Britain on the basis of Methodism. The Church of the Nazarene (1895) and the Wesleyan Church (1968) also emerged from Methodism, reproaching Methodism for excessive doctrinal liberalism.
Reformation processes also affected Orthodox Russia. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. among the Russians appeared the so-called. Spiritual Christianity - Christophers (whips), Dukhobors, Molokans, whose doctrine was partly similar to the Protestant one (in particular, the rejection of icons, the veneration of saints, the rejection of rituals, etc.).
The denomination of the Plymouth Brethren (Darbists), which appeared in Great Britain in the 1820s. from Anglicanism, adheres to the doctrine according to which the history of mankind is divided into separate. periods, in each of which the characteristic law of God operates (dispensationalism). In the 1840s there was a split into "open" and "closed" Darbists.
Adventism appeared in the 1830s. in the USA based on the interpretation of biblical texts about the Second Coming of Jesus Christ and the possibility of its exact calculation. In 1863, the organization of the largest current in Adventism, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, was created. During the 1st World War reformist Adventists stood out, dissatisfied with the partial rejection of Adventists from pacifism. Seventh-day Adventists are distinguished by their denial of the immortality of the soul and eternal torment (sinners will simply be destroyed during the Last Judgment), the veneration of Saturday as the "seventh day" of serving God, the recognition of the restoration of the gift of prophecy and visions through the founder of the church, Ellen White, as well as a number of food prohibitions and prescriptions healthy lifestyle (“health reform”).
A distinctive feature of the New Apostolic Church, which arose in the second half of the XIX century. in the UK based on the communities of the so-called. Irvingian (a community that broke away from the Presbyterians), is the cult of "apostles" - the leaders of the church, whose word is the same doctrinal authority as the Bible.
In the 19th century there was a tendency to unite the Protestant churches. In the English-speaking world, this was facilitated by the so-called. revivalism is a movement that called Christians to repentance and personal conversion. The result was the emergence of the Disciples of Christ (Church of Christ), the so-called. Evangelicals and United Churches. The Disciples of Christ (Church of Christ) appeared in the early 1830s. in the United States from Presbyterianism. This denomination included Protestants who proclaimed a complete rejection of any dogmas, symbols and institutions not specified in the New Testament. The disciples of Christ allow differences of opinion even on such important issues as the Trinity, believing that this and many other dogmas are not clearly explained in Scripture. Evangelicals that appeared in the United States in the 19th century preach non-denominational personal conversion, "birth again" with a special act of God changing the believer's heart, faith in the sacrifice of Christ on the cross, and active missionary work. The conservative wing of the Evangelicals created dispensationalism, the liberal wing created social evangelism (changing social reality in order to bring it closer to the Kingdom of God). On the basis of evangelicalism, fundamentalism arose (named after a series of pamphlets "Fundamentals", published in 1910-1915). Fundamentalists insisted on the absolute authenticity of common Christian dogmas and a literalist reading of the Bible. so-called. neo-evangelicalism emerged in the 1940s, uniting those who criticized liberal evangelicals for moral relativism and fundamentalism for being closed, and advocated active preaching by modern means. Neo-evangelicalism has given rise to the so-called in the United States. megachurches - church organizations in which there is a "center" (the main church, headed by a leader, which develops the style of worship and preaching, manuals for Sunday schools and social work, etc.) and "branches" (numerous church communities located in direct and rigid submission to the "center").
In the middle of the XIX - early. XX centuries appeared so-called. united churches as a result of the merger of different Protestant denominations - Lutherans, Anglicans, Reformed, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, etc. In most cases, the merger was voluntary, sometimes imposed by the state. The unifying basis of these churches is their historical involvement in the Reformation and doctrinal affinity. At the end of the XIX century. appeared so-called. free churches are Protestant communities that exist independently of state Protestant churches.
The development of the theology of Protestantism in the XX century. characterized by the ideas that the mystical gifts of the ancient church should return to the church and that Christianity should be adapted to non-European cultures. So, at the beginning of the XX century. from the Methodist group "Movement of holiness" Pentecostalism was formed, which is characterized by an exclusive role in the church of the Holy Spirit, the gift of glossolalia (pronouncing specific sounds reminiscent of unknown languages during prayer), etc. In the 1960s and 70s Pentecostalism received a new impetus for development due to representatives of Christian denominations using Pentecostal practices. Under the influence of the so-called. Pentecost in the 20th century original Asian and African churches arose, characterized by a combination of Christian and pagan practices.
Oksana Kuropatkina
