Using personal social experience and the facts of public life, illustrate with three examples the author's idea that "a person can become himself ... through his practical activities, communication."
Man... is aware of himself. Man thinks and knows himself. He is aware of what he does, thinks, feels. Both historically and in the course of individual development, a person is initially aware of objects and his practical actions, and at a higher level of development, his thoughts about objects and actions. He recognizes himself as a person. Self-consciousness involves the selection and distinction of a person himself, his Self from everything that surrounds him. Self-consciousness is a person's awareness of his actions, feelings, thoughts, motives of behavior, interests, his position in society. In the formation of self-consciousness, a person's sensations of his own body, movements, and actions play a significant role.
A person can become himself only in interaction with other people, with the world through his practical activity, communication. The social conditionality of the formation of self-consciousness lies not only in the direct communication of people with each other, in their evaluative relations, but also in the formulation of the requirements of society for an individual, in the awareness of the very rules of the relationship. A person realizes himself not only through other people, but also through the material and spiritual culture created by them...
Knowing himself, a person, according to T. Mann, never remains quite the same as he was before. Self-consciousness did not arise as a spiritual mirror for the idle self-admiration of man. It appeared in response to the call of social conditions of life, which from the very beginning required from each person the ability to evaluate their actions, words and thoughts. Life, with its strict lessons, has taught a person to exercise self-control and self-regulation. By regulating his actions and foreseeing the results of these actions, the self-conscious person takes full responsibility for them.
Self-consciousness is closely connected with the phenomenon of reflection... Reflection is a reflection of a person about himself when he peers into the innermost depths of his inner spiritual life. Without reflection, a person cannot fully realize what is happening in his soul, in his inner spiritual world. Here, constant summing up of what has been done is important ...
The levels of reflection can be very diverse - from elementary self-consciousness to deep reflections on the meaning of one's being, its moral content. Reflecting on one's own spiritual processes, a person often critically evaluates negative sides his spiritual world, bad habits, etc. Knowing himself, he never remains the same as he was before...
The scale of the subject's awareness of his mental activity extend from a vague understanding of what is happening in the soul, to a deep and clear self-consciousness. Consciousness is a moral and psychological characteristic of a person's actions, which is based on the consciousness and assessment of oneself, one's capabilities, intentions and goals.
(A.G. SparkinD. Soros)
Explanation.
The following examples may be given:
1) the entrepreneur has founded a fund to help sick children and realizes his need for civic engagement, the manifestation of mercy;
2) communication with a psychologist helped a person overcome difficult life circumstances;
3) after the internship, the student realized that he had chosen the right profession.
Other examples can be given
standing
` "Cross and one-way traffic". At the first stage, the child walks slowly, alternately touching either the right or the left hand of the opposite knee (cross movements). At the stage of mastering the exercise, you count (clap your hands) 12 times at a slow pace.
At the second stage, he also steps slowly 12 times to your “accompaniment”, but already touching the knee of the same name (unilateral movements). At the third and fifth stages - cross movements, at the fourth - unilateral. Thus, the first, third and fifth (second and fourth, respectively) stages are the same. A prerequisite is to start and
Rice. 7. Scheme for performing an exercise with a tape
After the child has mastered this exercise under an external account, you can offer to perform it on your own - to count and control the sequence and switch from movement to movement. A more complex version of this exercise is the loading of the visual analyzer, when the child follows with his eyes an object that the teacher is moving, or the child translates his eyes according to a verbal instruction.
` Jumping and running in place on two legs. Alternation of jumps: legs apart (to the sides, back and forth) - legs together, legs apart and legs crossed; the same, but with a similar movement of the arms extended straight in front of you; running with a cross step straight and to the sides.
` "Okay". Recall the well-known game. Each of the players performs a clap; then a straight (cross) clap on the partner's palm; "own" cotton; then clap with the partners' right palms; "own" cotton; then clap with the left palms of the partners. Repeat the cycle of six claps, gradually increasing the pace until one of the partners mixes up the sequence.
In a more complex version, additional claps can be used here: foot on foot, knee on knee, elbow on elbow.
` "Gypsy". Imitation of the well-known dance. Touch the left knee with the right hand (the left leg bent at the knee rises forward and up); then touch the right heel with your left hand from behind (the right leg bent at the knee is pulled back). Repeat for the left arm and right knee respectively. right hand and left heel. Run the entire cycle 3 times.
Having considered the basic neuropsychological technologies for the formation and correction of the integrative sensorimotor repertoire of the child, we note in conclusion the obligatory inclusion of special, widely known methods in the psychological and pedagogical support relaxation, relaxation. Bearing in mind the huge amount of literature on this issue, we will not dwell on these techniques. You can use those that are most effective for a given child.
« In any case, you must contact personal experience by asking him (lying with eyes closed) imagine the seashore, where the sun gently shines and the surf quietly splashes, a sunny meadow or a hammock in the country, where he indulged in his dreams. You can also use the child's fantasies by inviting him to imagine himself lying on a cloud, a magic carpet, etc.
I would only like to emphasize the need to take into account the influence of music, color and smells on the somatic and mental state of a person. It is known that the combination of the above factors can have different effects - tonic, stimulating, strengthening, restoring, calming, relaxing, etc. Therefore, the thoughtful use of music, color and smells can increase the effectiveness of the exercises performed, creating additional potential for the development of the child.
So, rhythmic, fast, loud music has a stimulating and tonic effect, similar to the effect of red, orange, yellow flowers. On the contrary, slow, smooth, quiet music has a calming and relaxing effect, like green, blue, blue colors. It is very important to diversify your record library with a selection of recordings of natural sounds, which are available in abundance in stores today.
Relaxation can be carried out both at the beginning or middle of the lesson, and at the end - in order to integrate the experience gained during the game-lesson. The techniques you have chosen can be applied at any time when you see the need to relax the child, and sometimes to slow down his irrepressible energy.
Chapter 6
Don't rush lefty!
It is written: "In the beginning was the Word" -
And now one obstacle is ready:
I can't value the word so highly.
Yes, in the translation I have to change the text,
When my feeling told me right.
I will write that Thought is the beginning of everything.
Stop, do not rush, so that the first line
It wasn't far from the truth!
After all, the Thought cannot create and act!
Isn't Strength the beginning of all beginnings?
I write - and again I began to hesitate,
And again doubt disturbs my soul.
But the light flashed - and I see the way out boldly,
I can write: "In the beginning was the Deed"!
I.V. Goethe
In the beginning there was work, action, movement. And then speech was gradually born and grew out of this in the history of mankind. But that's not all. Ethologists have shown that speech mechanism in the evolution of mankind and each specific, really existing person based on a complex of interacting communication channels(olfactory, tactile, visual, auditory, vocalization, postural gestures). And for a full speech actualization all these motor and sensory processes must not only mature, but also go through a long path of mutual interweaving, interactions, and sometimes even intense competition.
Don't rush lefties! The whole set of these the most complex processes needs their ontogeny for a longer time than is usually the case with right-handers. The power of left-handed children over their own mental ontogeny« practically ends where the very course of activity requires the inclusion of procedural, dynamic parameters. This is also due to the functional specificity of their brain.
It is clear that this manifests itself most clearly in movement and speech. After all, only these mental processes"work" for us outside. No wonder they are so closely related. Lefties have a hard time with everything related to the need to quickly switch from one process to another(or from one type of manipulation to another within the same process). But on such switches, as well as on the smooth, orderly unfolding of any process (perception of the surrounding world or reading, playing or writing), all our behavior is based.
Characteristically, these children very often demonstrate a specific "rollback" of speech development at the age of 2-3 years. Parents note that the child's speech at first developed well, and suddenly he seemed to be "numb": he stopped talking, gave the impression that he had become what he was in infancy. The same could be observed with various motor skills: he was good at tying shoelaces (holding a spoon, playing ball, etc.), and then, as it were, suddenly forgot how to do it. Then these processes seemed to be leveled. However, their "trace" clearly reveals itself in a neuropsychological examination.
Outwardly, this manifests itself in characteristic "stuck" at the beginning of any type of activity, including speech utterance, in constant search words in spontaneous speech, a tendency to replace the right words close to them in meaning. In left-handed children, a relatively late debut of independent speech is observed, and in the future it often has a distinct accentuation: insufficiently developed, slowed down, stingy, there are moments of incorrect sentence construction, case correspondences, etc.
At the same time, the child almost always retains complete control over his own speech production, understands that he is speaking incorrectly, and strives to correct mistakes. Even from the expression on his face it is obvious (the conviction that has been created is confirmed by objective research) that his inner speech is much richer and brighter than his outer one.
This is confirmed by the fact that left-handed children, as a rule, have a very high level of conceptual thinking; they cope with all intellectual tasks much better than their peers. Just do not rush the child, give him time to "enter" the task, choose best option her decisions, and only then evaluate his success. He, by the type of his brain organization, has the right to some slowness in the initiation of any motor process, including speech. His brain needs some time to start any activity unfolding in time and space.
So we come to one of the main zones of psychological vulnerability is left-handed. They have are very weak and, according to their very natural, brain status, dynamic, kinetic components of almost all mental functions and behavior in general are slowly formed. By the way, it is this circumstance that largely determines their well-known weakness: a tendency to stutter, various delays and failures in speech (and, more broadly, behavioral) actualization in any more or less stressful conditions.
Especially difficult for them are situations in which fast conjugated actions of both hands are necessary (especially if these movements are not synchronous). Often children complain that their arms and legs get in the way if they have to perform any difficult gymnastic exercise or dance.
True, even here, with age, they find "workarounds" automatically duplicating, literally copying someone's movement, memorizing it, and only then gradually weaving it into the general outline, for example, of dance. Do not rush the child if he cannot do several things at once, for example, draw something and listen to you: it is beyond his power for the very reasons described above. He can only focus on one thing.
Even left-handed adults sometimes complain that peeling potatoes and talking to someone at the same time is sheer agony for them, because they constantly focus on either the potatoes or on the conversation. In an effort to help little left-handed people, try to give them as many exercises as possible during morning exercises that would involve both arms or legs - for example, imitation crawl swimming or playing the piano. Work with them together each movement separately and only gradually increase the pace.
And the most competent and effective will be the presence in your life together of a neuropsychological (“physical-playing”) set of exercises, which it is desirable to perform regularly. It is best to start classes with breathing exercises, massage, stretch marks, which have already been described.
In a single scenario with these exercises, as already discussed in the previous chapter, it is useful and necessary to perform a corrective (preventive, developmental) neuropsychological block, which includes methods focused on optimizing kinetic processes in various systems(eyes, tongue, hands, etc.). The ideology of their application is associated with the directed formation in left-handed children of those motor skills, in the broad sense of the word, that are based on well-functioning interactions between the subcortical and cortical systems, the right and left hemispheres of the brain.
In this chapter, we continue to discuss the complex neuropsychological method of “replacement ontogenesis”, emphasizing that part of it that is most focused on correction and habilitation of speech processes in their interaction with other mental functions and systems. Naturally, the described neuropsychological cycle is presented here as a whole, as an ideology. It is by no means exhausted by the methods given in the previous and this chapter. Anyone who seeks a more complete study of this issue can be recommended to refer to well-known literary sources, which (besides their scientific and applied value) contain extensive methodological and illustrative material.
The first step towards the intensification of speech development should be the formation, correction and prevention of its basic level, which are impossible without the appropriate optimization of movement, perception, memory and the elimination of many unfavorable signs (hyper- and hypotonus, synkinesis, pathological rigid bodily attitudes, etc.). ). All of the above in children is primarily a consequence of the same neuropsychological radical: insufficiency of subcortical formations of the brain, which secondarily leads to a delay, distortion and / or disruption of the ontogeny of interhemispheric interactions.
Many of these problems of your child, I hope, have already become less acute: after all, you are mastering with him the neuropsychological complex described in the previous chapter. Let's continue our discussion.
The expansion of the sensorimotor repertoire of the speech apparatus, which always begins with massage exercises, is well developed and widely described in the speech therapy literature, so we will list only a few of the relevant exercises. Moreover, the author's program of speech therapist T.N. Lenina "Dolphins", which integrates all the necessary types of neuropsychological and speech therapy influences:
Opening and closing the mouth, keeping the lips in a smile with a closed mouth and bared teeth; stretching the lips forward (left-right) with a tube; alternation of the positions of the lips: in a smile - with a tube - calm;
various movements (forward-backward, right-left, circular) with the jaw and lips folded into a “tube”;
The tongue is wide, narrow, "tube", "coil"; language - “sting of a snake”, “watch”, “swing”; the alternation of all these positions and movements of the tongue;
The movements of the tongue along the external and inner surface upper and lower teeth; deep into the mouth - to the front lower incisors; licking lips in different directions; imitation of clicking, hissing and clattering.
Chapter 4 INTERACTION AND RELATIONSHIPS OF PEOPLE
Basic concepts: interaction, causation of interaction, interpersonal interaction, intergroup interaction, stages and levels of interaction, types and types of interaction, relationships, mutual influence, subject-object and subject-subject relationships, types and functions of relationships
Society does not consist of separate individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relations in which these individuals are in relation to each other. The basis of these connections and relationships is the actions of people and their influence on each other, which are called interactions. Society does not consist of separate individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relations in which these individuals are in relation to each other. The basis of these connections and relationships is the actions of people and their influence on each other, which are called interactions.
The peculiarity of human interaction
General characteristics of interaction. Interaction
- this is a process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, generating mutual conditioning and connection.
It is the causation that main feature interaction, when each of the interacting parties acts as a cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite side, which determines the development of objects and their structures. If the interaction reveals a contradiction, then it acts as a source of self-movement and self-development of phenomena and processes.
In interaction, the relation of a person to another person as to a subject who has his own world is realized. The interaction of a person with a person in society is the interaction of their inner worlds, the exchange of thoughts, ideas, images, the impact on goals and needs, the impact on the assessments of another individual, his emotional state.
Interaction in social psychology, in addition, is usually understood not only as the influence of people on each other, but also as the direct organization of their joint actions, which allows the group to realize common activities for its members. The interaction itself in this case acts as a systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate reaction from other people.
Joint life and activity, in contrast to the individual, at the same time has more severe restrictions on any manifestations of activity - the passivity of individuals. This forces people to build and coordinate the images of "I - he", "we - they", to coordinate efforts between them. In the course of real interaction, adequate ideas of a person about himself, other people, and their groups are also formed. The interaction of people is the leading factor in the regulation of their self-assessments and behavior in society.
In a very simplified form, interaction can be represented as a process that consists of:
– physical contact;
- movement in space;
– perceptions and attitudes of its participants;
- spiritual verbal contact;
- non-verbal information contact;
- joint group activities.
The structure of the interaction usually includes:
– subjects of interaction;
- the mutual connection of its subjects;
- mutual influence on each other;
- Mutual changes in the subjects of interaction.
Usually, intrapersonal, interpersonal, personal-group, personal-mass, intergroup, mass-group interactions are distinguished. But two types of interaction are of fundamental importance in their analysis: interpersonal and intergroup.
Interpersonal interaction
- these are accidental or intentional, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and connections of two or more people, causing mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and experiences.
The main features of such interaction are:
the presence of an external goal (object) in relation to the interacting individuals, the achievement of which involves mutual efforts;
explicitness (accessibility) for observation from outside and registration by other people;
situationality - rather strict regulation by specific conditions of activity, norms, rules and intensity of relations, due to which interaction becomes a rather changeable phenomenon;
reflexive ambiguity - the dependence of its perception on the conditions of implementation and assessments of its participants.
Intergroup interaction
is a process of direct or indirect influence of multiple subjects (objects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditionality and the peculiar nature of relations. Usually it takes place between whole groups (as well as their parts) and acts as an integrating (or destabilizing) factor in the development of society.
Interacting, representatives of various groups of society, on the one hand, change their own features and qualities, making them somewhat different, not similar to the previous ones, and on the other hand, they turn some of the unique features of each of them into something common, into a joint property. Revealing that these features belong only to representatives of one community becomes problematic over time.
At the same time, we can talk about three options for interaction:
impact, that is, a predominantly one-sided, unidirectional influence of one community (personality) on another (others), when one group (personality) is active, dominant, the other is inert, passive in relation to this influence (specific manifestations can be coercion, manipulation, etc.). P.);
assistance, when two or more groups (personalities) on an equal footing provide assistance, support to each other, achieve unity in deeds and intentions, and the highest form facilitation favors cooperation;
opposition, create obstacles to actions, generate contradictions in positions, block the efforts of another community (personality) or interfere with it, as well as organize active opposition up to physical actions (in order to contradict, prevent, collide with someone, it is necessary to to have certain qualities, to show vigor and combativeness).
The likelihood of opposition increases in cases where a group (individual) or its representatives encounter something new, unusual, non-traditional in their lives, in particular, with an unusual way of thinking, other customs and orders, alternative views. Under these circumstances, the reaction of counteraction is quite objective and normal.
Each of the listed variants of interaction is not “one-dimensional”, but has a wide range of manifestations. For example, the impact can vary from harshly tyrannical to mild, taking into account the characteristics of the objects of influence, opposition can also be represented by a range - from irreconcilable contradictions to minor disagreements. It should be borne in mind that there may not be an unambiguous interpretation of interaction options, since each of them can absorb others, and some of them can gradually transform even into their opposite, move to another group, etc.
Content and dynamics of interaction. At present, in Western science there are many points of view explaining the reasons for the interaction of people (see Table 1) .
Tab. one. Western interaction theories
You can divide the process of human interaction into three levels: initial, intermediate and final.
On the lowest level interaction is the simplest primary contacts of people, when between them there is only a certain primary and very simplified mutual or one-sided "physical" influence on each other for the purpose of exchanging information and communication, which, for specific reasons, may not achieve its goal, and therefore not receive comprehensive development.
The main thing in the success of initial contacts lies in the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by the partners in the interaction. At the same time, they do not constitute a simple sum of individuals, but are some completely new and specific formation of connections and relationships, which is regulated by a real or imaginary (imagined) difference - similarity, similarity - contrast of people involved in joint activity (practical or mental). Differences between individuals are one of the main conditions for the further development of interaction (its other forms - communication, relationships, mutual understanding), as well as themselves as individuals.
Any contact usually begins with a concrete sensory perception of the external appearance, features of the activity and behavior of other people. At this moment, as a rule, the emotional-behavioral reactions of individuals to each other dominate. Relationships of acceptance - rejection are manifested in facial expressions, gestures, posture, gaze, intonation, the desire to end or continue communication. They indicate whether people like each other. If not, then mutual or unilateral reactions of rejection follow (sliding gaze, jerking the hand when shaking, turning away the head, body, fencing gestures, "sour mine", fussiness, running away, etc.) or termination of established contact. And vice versa, people turn to those who smile, look straight and open, turn to the front, respond with a cheerful and cheerful tone, to those who are trustworthy and with whom further cooperation can be developed through joint efforts.
Of course, the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by partners in interaction has deeper roots. A distinction can be made between science-based and proven stages homogeneity - heterogeneity(degrees of similarity - differences) of the participants in the interaction. initial stage
there is a ratio of individual (natural) and personal parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations) of people. Of particular importance in interpersonal interaction are the age and gender differences of partners.
Final stage
homogeneity - heterogeneity (degrees of similarity - contrast of participants in interpersonal interaction)
- there is a correlation in the group (similarity - difference) of opinions, attitudes (including sympathies - antipathies) to oneself, partners or other people, to the objective world (including joint activities). The final stage is divided into stages: primary (or initial) and secondary (or effective). The primary stage is the initial ratio of opinions given before interpersonal interaction (about the world of objects and their own kind). The secondary stage finds expression in the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions and relationships as a result of interpersonal interaction, the exchange of thoughts and feelings between participants in joint activities.
An important role in the interaction at its initial stage is also played by the effect congruences. It is a confirmation of mutual role expectations, a single resonant rhythm, the consonance of the experiences of the participants in the contact.
Congruence implies a minimum of mismatches in the key moments of the lines of behavior of the participants in the contact, which results in stress relief, the emergence of trust and sympathy at a subconscious level.
The congruence is enhanced by the feeling of complicity, interest, search for mutual activity caused by the partner based on his needs and life experience. Congruence may appear from the first minutes of contact between previously unfamiliar partners, or may not arise at all. The presence of a congruence indicates an increase in the likelihood that the interaction will continue. In this sense, one should strive to achieve congruence from the first minutes of contact.
The main prerequisites for achieving congruence usually include:
a) feeling of belonging which occurs in the following cases:
♦ when the goals of the subjects of interaction are interconnected;
♦ when there is a basis for interpersonal rapprochement;
♦ when subjects belong to the same social group;
b) empathy, which is easier to implement:
♦ when establishing emotional contact;
♦ with the similarity of behavioral and emotional reactions of partners;
♦ in the presence of the same feelings for some subject;
♦ when attention is drawn to partners' feelings (for example, they are simply described);
in) identification, which is reinforced:
♦ with liveliness, a variety of behavioral manifestations of the interacting parties;
♦ when a person sees traits of his character in another;
♦ when partners seem to change places and discuss from each other's positions;
♦ when referring to previous cases;
♦ with a commonality of thoughts, interests, social roles and positions.
As a result of congruence and effective primary contacts, Feedback between people, which is a process of mutually directed responses that serves to maintain subsequent interaction and during which there is also an intentional or unintentional communication to another person about how his behavior and actions (or their consequences) are perceived or experienced.
There are three main feedback functions. It usually acts as: 1) a regulator of human behavior and actions; 2) the regulator of interpersonal relations; 3) a source of self-knowledge.
Feedback can be of different types, and each option corresponds to one or another specificity of interaction between people and the establishment of stable relations between them.
Feedback can be: a) verbal (transmitted in the form of a voice message); b) non-verbal, carried out through facial expressions, posture, intonation of voice, etc.; c) expressed in the form of an action focused on manifestation, showing another person understanding, approval, and expressed in joint activity.
Feedback can be immediate and delayed in time, it can be emotionally colored and transmitted by a person to another as a kind of experience, or it can be with a minimal experience of emotions and behavioral responses.
In different options for joint activities, their own types of feedback are appropriate. The inability to use feedback significantly complicates the interaction of people, reducing its effectiveness. Thanks to feedback in the course of interaction, people become similar to each other, bring their state, emotions, actions and actions in line with the unfolding process of relationships.
The existing psychological community of partners strengthens their contacts, leads to the development of relationships between them, contributes to the transformation of their personal relationships and actions into joint ones. Attitudes, needs, interests, relationships in general, acting as motives, determine the promising areas of interaction between partners, while its tactics are also regulated by a mutual understanding of the personal characteristics of people, their images-representations about each other, about themselves, the tasks of joint activity.
At the same time, the regulation of the interaction and relationships of people is carried out not by one, but by a whole group of images. In addition to images-representations of partners about each other, the system of psychological regulators of joint activity includes images-representations about themselves ("I-concept"), partners' ideas about the impression they made on each other, the ideal image of the social role that partners perform, views on the possible results of joint activities.
These images-representations together are not always clearly perceived by people in the process of interaction. They often act as unconscious impressions and do not find a way out into the conceptual sphere of thinking of the subjects of joint activity. At the same time, the psychological content contained in attitudes, motives, needs, interests, relationships, is manifested through volitional actions in various forms of partner-directed behavior.
On the middle level process of human interaction, which is called productive collaboration, gradually developing active cooperation finds more and more expression in effective solution problems of connection of mutual efforts of partners.
Usually distinguish three models organization of joint activities: 1) each participant does his part common work independently of the other; 2) the common task is performed sequentially by each participant; 3) there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others. Their real existence depends on the conditions of activity, its goals and content.
The common aspirations of people, however, can lead to clashes in the process of coordinating positions. As a result, people enter into an agreement-disagreement relationship with each other. In case of agreement, partners are involved in joint activities. In this case, the distribution of roles and functions between the participants in the interaction takes place. These relations cause a special orientation of volitional efforts in the subjects of interaction. It is associated either with a concession or with the conquest of certain positions. Therefore, partners are required to show mutual tolerance, composure, perseverance, psychological mobility and other volitional qualities personality, based on the intellect and a high level of consciousness and self-awareness of the individual.
At the same time, at this time, the interaction of people is actively accompanied or mediated by the manifestation of complex socio-psychological phenomena, called compatibility - incompatibility (or workability - incompatibility). Just as interpersonal relationships and communication are specific forms of interaction, so compatibility and synergy must be considered its special constituent elements. Interpersonal relations in the group and compatibility (physiological and psychological) of its members give rise to another important socio-psychological phenomenon, which is commonly called the psychological climate.
There are several types of compatibility. Psychophysiological compatibility is based on the interaction of temperamental characteristics, the needs of individuals. Psychological compatibility involves the interaction of characters, intellects, behavioral motives. Socio-psychological compatibility provides for the coordination of social roles, interests, value orientations of participants. Finally, socio-ideological compatibility is based on the commonality of ideological values, on the similarity of social attitudes (in intensity and direction)
- regarding possible facts of reality related to the implementation of ethnic, class and confessional interests. There are no clear boundaries between these types of compatibility, while the extreme levels of compatibility, for example, physiological and socio-psychological, socio-ideological, have obvious differences.
In joint activities, control by the participants themselves is noticeably activated (self-control, self-examination, mutual control, mutual examination), which affects the performance part of the activity, including the speed and accuracy of individual and joint actions.
At the same time, it should be remembered that the motivation of its participants is primarily the engine of interaction and joint activity. There are several types of social motives for interaction (motives for which a person interacts with other people):
1) maximizing the total gain (motive of cooperation);
2) maximizing one's own gain (individualism);
3) maximizing the relative gain (competition);
4) maximizing the gain of the other (altruism);
5) minimizing the gain of another (aggression);
6) minimizing differences in payoffs (equality).
Within the framework of this scheme, all possible motives that determine the social interaction of people can be generally included: interest in certain activities and specific people, means of communication, results of cooperation, the nature of relations between partners, etc. However, the most significant for understanding interaction are just the ones mentioned above.
The mutual control over each other carried out by the participants in joint activities can lead to a revision of individual motives for activity if there are significant differences in their direction and level, as a result of which the individual motives of people begin to be coordinated.
During this process, there is a constant coordination of thoughts, feelings, relationships of partners in joint life. It is clothed in various forms influence of people on each other. Some of them encourage the partner to act (order, request, suggestion), others authorize the actions of partners (consent or refusal), and others cause discussion (question, reasoning). The discussion itself can take the form of coverage, conversation, debate, conference, seminar and a number of other types of interpersonal contacts. However, the choice of forms of influence is more often dictated by the functional-role relationships of partners in joint work. For example, the supervisory function of the leader encourages him to more frequently use orders, requests and authorizing answers, while the pedagogical function of the same leader requires more frequent use of discussion forms of interaction. Thus, the process of mutual influence of partners in interaction is realized. Through it, people “process” each other, striving to change and transform the mental states, attitudes, and, ultimately, the behavior and psychological qualities of partners in joint activities.
Mutual influence as a change in opinions and assessments can be situational when circumstances require it. As a result of repeated changes in opinions and assessments, stable assessments and opinions are formed, the convergence of which leads to the behavioral, emotional and cognitive unity of the participants in the interaction. This, in turn, leads to convergence of interests and value orientations, intellectual and character traits of the partners.
The regulators of the mutual influence of people on each other are the mechanisms of suggestion, conformity and persuasion, when under the influence of opinions, relations of one partner, the opinions, relations of the other change. They are formed on the basis of a deeper property of living systems - imitation. Unlike the latter, suggestion, conformity and persuasion regulate interpersonal norms of thoughts and feelings.
Suggestion is such an influence on other people that they perceive unconsciously. Conformity, in contrast to suggestion, is a phenomenon of a conscious change in opinions and assessments. Situationally and consciously, conformity allows you to maintain and coordinate ideas (norms) about the events taking place in people's lives and activities. Of course, events have varying degrees of significance for those who are forced to evaluate them. Persuasion is a process of long-term influence on another person, during which he consciously learns the norms and rules of behavior of partners in interaction.
Convergence or change in mutual points of view and opinions affects all spheres and levels of interacting people. In the conditions of solving specific current problems of life and activity, especially communication, their convergence - divergence acts as a kind of regulator of interpersonal interaction. If the convergence of assessments and opinions forms a single "language", group norms of relations, behavior and activities, then their divergence acts as a driving force for the development of interpersonal relations and groups.
Interpersonal interactions depend on the degree certainties - uncertainties(obviousness - non-obviousness) of facts, events, phenomena on which certain decisions are made. The researchers found the following relationship: with a high certainty (obviousness) of the problem, the probability of changing estimates and opinions is less, the adequacy of its solution is higher. With high uncertainty (non-obviousness) of the problem, the probability of changes in estimates and opinions is greater, the adequacy of its solution is less high. This dependence can be called the law of "social - psychological expediency", which generally indicates that in the conditions of discussion of opinions, assessments, their adequacy to the real state of affairs increases.
Top level
interaction is always exceptionally effective joint activity of people, accompanied by mutual understanding.“Mutual understanding of people is such a level of their interaction at which they are aware of the content and structure of the present and possible next actions of the partner, and also mutually contribute to the achievement of a common goal. For mutual understanding, joint activity is not enough, mutual assistance is needed. It excludes its antipode - mutual opposition, with the appearance of which misunderstanding arises, and then misunderstanding of man by man. At the same time, mutual misunderstanding is one of the essential prerequisites for the collapse of human interaction or the cause of a wide variety of interpersonal difficulties, conflicts, etc.
An essential characteristic of mutual understanding is always its adequacy. It depends on a number of factors: on the type of relationship between partners (relationships of acquaintance and friendship, friendship, love and marital relations, comradely, business relations); from the sign or valence of relations (likes, dislikes, indifferent relations); on the degree of possible objectification, the manifestation of personality traits in the behavior and activities of people (sociability, for example, is most easily observed in the process of interaction). Importance in adequacy as accuracy, depth and breadth of perception and interpretation have an opinion, assessment of others more or less significant people, groups, authorities.
For a correct analysis of mutual understanding, two factors can be correlated - sociometric status and the degree of similarity according to it.
At the same time, the following is found out: people with different socio-psychological statuses in the team steadily interact with each other (are friends); reject each other, that is, they experience interpersonal rejection, those persons who are similar in status and it is not high enough for them (significant differences).
In pairs of people who mutually reject each other, the combinations “choleric - choleric”, “sanguine - sanguine” and “phlegmatic - sanguine” are most often found. There was not a single case of mutual denials in a pair of the "phlegmatic - phlegmatic" type. In friendly couples, there is not a single case of the combinations “choleric - choleric”, “sanguine - sanguine”, and in pairs of people who mutually reject each other, such combinations are the majority.
More wide range combinations with other types of temperament have melancholic, who steadily retain interpersonal attraction to their own kind, with phlegmatic and sanguine people. The combination of a melancholic with a choleric occurs only once: choleric people, due to their irritability, "unrestraint", do not get along well (incompatible) with melancholic people and other choleric people, and melancholic people are better compatible with phlegmatic and sanguine people.
Thus, interaction is a complex multi-stage and multifaceted process during which communication, perception, relationships, mutual influences and mutual understanding of people are carried out.
Types of interaction. Interaction, as already emphasized, is diverse. An indicator of this is its typology.
Usually there are several types of interactions. The most common is the dichotomous division: cooperation and competition(consent and conflict, accommodation and opposition). In this case, both the type of interaction (cooperation or rivalry) and the degree of expression of this interaction (successful or less successful cooperation) determine the nature of interpersonal relationships between people.
In the process of interaction of these types, as a rule, the following leading behavioral strategies in interaction:
1. Cooperation aimed at the full satisfaction of the needs of the participants in the interaction (either the motive of cooperation or competition is realized).
2. Opposition, which involves focusing on one's goals without taking into account the goals of communication partners (individualism).
3. Compromise, realized in the private achievement of the goals of partners for the sake of conditional equality.
4. Compliance, involving the sacrifice of one's own interests in order to achieve the goals of a partner (altruism).
5. Avoidance, which is the avoidance of contact, the loss of one's own goals for exceptions another's win.
The division into types can be based on the intentions and actions of people that reflect their understanding of the situation of communication. Then there are three types of interactions: additional, intersecting and hidden. An additional interaction is such an interaction in which the partners adequately perceive each other's position. Intersecting is an interaction in which partners, on the one hand, demonstrate the inadequacy of understanding the positions and actions of another participant in the interaction, and on the other
- clearly show their own intentions and actions. Hidden interaction includes two levels at the same time: explicit, verbally expressed, and hidden, implied. It implies either a deep knowledge of the partner, or greater sensitivity to non-verbal means of communication - tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, since they convey the hidden content.
Interaction is always present in the form of two components: content and style. Content determines around what or about what this or that interaction is deployed. Style indicates how a person interacts with others.
We can talk about productive and unproductive styles of interaction.
productive style
is a fruitful way of contact between partners, contributing to the establishment and extension of relationships of mutual trust, the disclosure of personal potentials and the achievement of effective results in joint activities. It is known that this style of interaction does not exist between people initially. It is installed. At the same time, quite often the participants in the interaction, due to personal characteristics, cannot adapt to each other, come to an agreement, overcome barriers, and establish trusting relationships.
In other cases, having exhausted the resources of adaptation available to them, having achieved some balance and trust in the first stages of the development of interaction, people cannot maintain effective relationships. In both cases, one speaks of unproductive style
interaction - an unproductive way of contact between partners, blocking the realization of personal potentials and the achievement of optimal results of joint activities.
A real manifestation of the unproductive style of interaction is a situation perceived by a person as “conflict”, “dead end”, as well as anxiety, tension, negative relationships and emotions experienced at the same time. At the same time, people react to a problem situation in interaction in different ways: some solve it on their own, others need support and psychological help.
Usually isolated five major criteria, allowing you to correctly understand the style of interaction:
The nature of the activity in the position of the partners (in the productive style - “next to the partner”, the active position of both partners as accomplices in the activity, in the unproductive style - “above the partner”, the active position of the leading partner and the passive position of subordination of the follower that complements it).
The nature of the goals put forward (in a productive style - partners jointly develop both close and distant goals; in an unproductive style - the dominant partner puts forward only close goals without discussing them with a partner).
The nature of responsibility (in a productive style, all participants in the interaction are responsible for the results of activities; in an unproductive style, all responsibility is attributed to the dominant partner).
The nature of the relationship that arises between partners (in a productive style - benevolence and trust; in an unproductive style - aggression, resentment, irritation).
The nature of the functioning of the mechanism of identification - isolation (identification and isolation in a productive style; extreme forms of identification and alienation in an unproductive style).
The peculiarity of intergroup interaction. Social Psychology still paid little attention to the problems of intergroup interaction. Three of his integrative phenomena are currently being investigated.
First, this group affiliation, which reflects the interaction between groups that are components of a larger community. Every group has a tendency to be integral part and feel that they belong to a wider social community. These are interactions of groups of different scale and volume (vertical interaction), which cannot be equal. In this case, a large social group, as it were, absorbs into itself the small ones, which function according to the laws of the first. Consequently, in order to comprehend the socio-psychological characteristics of a small group, it is first necessary to understand the uniqueness of a large social group, of which it is a part.
The general socio-psychological characteristics of the group should begin with the identification of its social affiliation. General analysis in this case will be primary in relation to the private. If we take for comparison two social groups that differ in their belonging to different large social groups, we must first of all determine the significant differences between these large groups and, on the basis of this, give comparative characteristic the small groups that make up them.
The very division of a large social group into smaller ones (subgroups) contributes to the formation of a social sense of belonging - a sense of "we", which gives rise to the perception of social phenomena through the prism of "us" and "them".
A conflict of interest between groups provokes the development of aggression, hostility towards representatives of another group. This causes the participants in the interaction to feel a sense of danger, threat, and the other group is perceived as the source of this threat. At the same time, there is an increase in intra-group solidarity, cohesion, a more complete awareness by individuals of belonging to their group. The impenetrability of the boundaries of group membership is increasing. At the same time, social control in the group is significantly enhanced, which leads to the fact that the degree of deviation of individuals from the fulfillment of group norms decreases.
Secondly, the phenomenon of intergroup interaction is openness group, which is necessary in order to maintain its existence in constantly changing social conditions and ensure the full functioning and development. All processes of group interaction with the surrounding society are carried out through group openness.
Openness is manifested in the desire of the group to receive information and influence from outside, as a result of which it is subjected to various kinds of influences and assessments from other groups. The level of group openness can be regarded as a kind of criterion for updating the group and maintaining a balance between the processes of differentiation and integration. The openness of the group can also be associated with the attraction of new members or even a change in the composition of the group.
The level of group openness is determined by the well-being of the existence of the group in society. The higher the level of well-being, the more open the group can be. At adverse conditions the open group becomes closed. Closeness in this case is significant from the point of view of preserving the group as a whole and saves the group for some time. However, if it is closed for a sufficiently long period of time, then it gradually loses its positive adaptive functions and, through stagnation, is reborn, turning from an adaptive social phenomenon into a maladaptive one.
Thirdly, the most important phenomenon of intergroup interaction is intergroup reference, which manifests itself in an appeal to a significant external group, acting as a carrier of certain values and norms, a certain reference model. Intergroup reference is determined by the value orientations of the group, its social attitudes and leading development trends. If the latter change, then the intergroup reference also changes.
Modern socio-psychological studies of intergroup interaction show that its main functions are the preservation, stabilization and development of groups as functional units of social life.
In interacting with other groups, each group strives for a more or less stable state by maintaining a relative balance of integration and differentiation tendencies. If tendencies of differentiation increase in the external relations of the group, then internal relations will be characterized by an increase in the trend of integration and vice versa.
Rivalry, cooperation, non-participation relations are the main strategies for interaction between social groups. The dominant strategy of interaction should be considered the strategy of rivalry.
Social interaction is a process of direct or indirect interaction of social subjects (actors) with each other, the exchange of actions between two or more actors.
Social interaction is one of the key concepts in sociological theory because all social phenomena ( social relations, processes, changes, social structure, statuses, roles, etc.) arise as a result of social interaction.
It is made up of separate, mutually directed social actions. Therefore, social interaction involves the mutual actions of at least two social actors. In this case, the action can be initiated by the actor himself (individual, group) and considered as a "challenge", or it can be a response to the actions of others - "response to the challenge".
The essence of social interaction lies in the fact that only in interaction with other people can a person satisfy the vast majority of his needs, interests, values. Yes, and by itself. interaction is a basic human need.
In the process of interaction, there is an exchange of information, knowledge, experience, material, spiritual and other values; an individual (group) determines his position relative to others, his place (status) in the social structure, his social roles. The role, in turn, prescribes certain patterns of behavior for the individual and makes the interaction predictable. The social structure itself, social relations and social institutions are the result various kinds and forms of social interaction.
The most important component of social interaction is the predictability of mutual expectations or, in other words, mutual understanding between actors. If the actors "speak different languages" and pursue mutually exclusive goals and interests, then the results of such interaction are unlikely to be positive.
The study of the problems of social interaction has always been in the center of attention of the world's leading sociologists. A significant contribution to the development of the theory of social action and social interaction was made by M. Weber, P. Sorokin, J. Homans, T. Parsons and others.
M. Weber believes that the source of social action and interaction of people (individuals, groups) are their needs, interests and values. In the course of interaction, people strive to rationalize their behavior as much as possible in order to achieve the greatest economic efficiency. Therefore, social actions are characterized by such qualities as awareness, rationality and focus on others. According to P. Sorokin, social interaction is a mutual exchange of collective experience, knowledge, concepts, the highest result of which is the emergence of "culture". At the societal level, social interaction can be represented as a sociocultural process in which collective experience is passed on from generation to generation.
At the same time, "each generation adds its part to the amount of knowledge (experience) received by inheritance, which it acquired during its life, and the amount of collective experience (knowledge) thus constantly grows."
J. Homans considers social interaction within the framework of the theory he created in the early 60s. 20th century concept of social exchange. He believes that in the process of interaction, each of the parties seeks to obtain the maximum possible rewards for their actions and minimize costs. J. Homans considers social approval among the most important rewards. Mutually rewarded interactions tend to become regular and develop into relationships based on a system of mutual expectations. If expectations are not confirmed, then the motivation for interaction and exchange will decrease. However, there is no direct proportional relationship between remuneration and costs, since, in addition to economic and other benefits, people's actions are determined (conditioned) by many other factors, for example, the desire to receive the maximum possible remuneration without due costs or, on the contrary, the desire to do good without counting on remuneration. The theory of social interaction was further developed and interpreted in the works of T. Parsons. In his opinion, social interaction at the level of social systems occurs due to "zones of interpenetration" and is carried out in the process of interchange. Social systems appear as "open", being in a state of constant interchange. In addition, they are differentiated into various subsystems, which are also involved in the processes of interchange.
Another scientific direction in the study of social interaction is symbolic interactionism (from the English interaction - interaction). The most famous representative of this trend is J. G. Mead (1863-1931). In his opinion, in interaction a more important role is played not by this or that action, but by its interpretation. For example, such an insignificant gesture (action) as a wink in one situation can be regarded as flirting or courtship, in another - as support, approval, etc. People, as a rule, do not automatically respond to outside influences. Before doing this, they unravel the meaning of the action, that is, endow it with a certain symbol. The same interpretation of actions-symbols contributes to successful interaction.
N. Smelser believes that symbolic interactionism gives a more realistic idea of social interaction than the exchange theory. "The essence of symbolic interactionism is that the interaction between people is seen as a continuous dialogue in which they observe, comprehend the intentions of each other and react to them."
6. Coordination of the group in interaction with other groups.
The activity of the leader is manifested in the style of leadership. Style is a characteristic of the interaction between the leader and subordinates, these are the most frequent and stable ways of influencing the manager on the managed.
2. Motivation of personnel activity
The management of a work collective (organization) is unthinkable without the motivation of its members. To make an organization dynamic, people must want it. Business relations are not built only on the basis of sympathy and antipathy, although they do not exclude this. People work for money. And money, when properly distributed, is a strong motive. But, as an organizational resource, the amount of money that the manager has is limited. Accordingly, the possibilities of using their motivating potential are also limited, however, as organizational psychology shows, each leader also has such unlimited resources for motivating employees as praise, timely feedback on performance results, recognition of a unique and inimitable personality in another, etc.
As practice shows, any form of labor behavior of a person depends on internal and external factors. Internal factors are determined by the psychological properties of a person, i.e., his motives. External factors - external conditions and circumstances, called incentives.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are not independent, they are interchangeable and mutually determined. Internal motives can be actualized under the influence of a certain situation and, on the contrary, the activation of certain dispositions (motives, needs) leads to a change in the situation, i.e. to its perception by the subject. Thus, the labor behavior of employees should not be considered as a reaction to certain internal or external incentives, but as a result of their continuous interaction.
This suggests considering motivation as a process of continuous mutual influence and transformation, in which the subject of action and the situation mutually influence each other and the result of this is really observable behavior.
Summarizing the above, we can conclude that the formation of external conditions, i.e., a system of incentives, will also determine the system of internal motives of members of the workforce of an enterprise.
And vice versa, influencing the formation of internal motivation of employees, the manager will also change the system of external motivation, i.e., their perception of a particular situation, and, consequently, their attitude to work, innovation and changes in the organization.
Thus, there are two main types of employee motivation. The first is that through external influences on the members of the team, certain motives are called into action that encourage people to carry out certain actions that lead to the desired result for the leader.
The second type of motivation is based on the formation of a certain motivational structure of employees. In this case, the focus is on developing and strengthening the motives for the actions of employees desirable for the leader or weakening those motives that hinder the effectiveness of the individual and the organization as a whole. This type of motivation is in the nature of educational and educational work, and its results do not appear immediately, but after a certain period of time.
The formation of an internal motivational system requires great efforts, knowledge and abilities of the leader for its implementation, however, its results significantly exceed the results of the first type of motivation. But the use of this type of motivation imposes requirements on the leader himself in terms of the self-management process.
3. Relationships in the organization
Any organization is a social system consisting of formal and informal groups, each of which is a community of people who influence other members of the group and are influenced by others, so the issues of mutual influence of the individual and the group in the organization are quite relevant and significant today.
A rather important problem of managerial activity is the relationship between groups in an organization, which can develop in different ways - from direct interaction to conflicts and even hostility. It should be taken into account that the functioning of intergroup phenomena has two directions.
The first direction is connected with the study of negative, destructive, socially undesirable phenomena. Scientists call them intergroup phenomena of a differentiating nature. These include any form of group-centrism, hostility, bias, discrimination, conflict, in-group favoritism.
The second direction is connected with the study of intergroup phenomena of an integrative nature: “group openness”, “intergroup referentiality”.
It should be noted that integrative and differential processes in intergroup interaction exist simultaneously and in normal conditions balance each other. But it must be emphasized that objective conditions directly affect intra-group structures and processes (cohesion, status-positional and value-normative structure of the group, leadership and decision-making processes, composition, type and nature of group development), and they, in turn, determine the type and the nature of intergroup relations, which affects the functioning of the organization as a whole.
Conclusion
Completing the work, we can come to the conclusion that in today's constantly changing environment, the only stable competitive advantage of any organization is the staff. This calls for a new vision of managerial relations, the basis of which should be the organizational psychology of management, focused on the disclosure of human resources. The study of the socio-psychological foundations of management, the formation of knowledge and skills in the field of human management, as practice shows, has a great influence on improving the efficiency of organization management.
However, despite the fact that management as a science has existed for more than 100 years, it is only in the last 50 years that management began to pay more attention to human factor, study such concepts as leadership, power, informal organizations, take into account the elements of organizational behavior of people, and, accordingly, aspects of the management process associated with them.
Bibliography
1. Kalyugina S.N. Socio-psychological aspects of managerial activity. Collection of scientific works of SevKavGTU. // Series "Economics". - 2007. - No. 5.
2. Meskon M., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of management. - M. Delo, 1998.
3. Parkinson S. et al. The art of management. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1992.
4. Polyakov, V.G. Man in the world of management. - M.: Nauka, 1996.
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