handicraft production
The general trend in the development of production in the first two centuries of the empire was its growth in the provinces (especially in the western ones) and its slow decline in Italy. However, this process was complex and cannot be simplified.
At the end of the Republic, Italian handicraft production was generally at a low level. Civil wars that disrupted the normal course of economic life, the speculative nature of Roman capital, and the importation of handicrafts from the provinces retarded the development of industry. In some industries, Italian production even went backward compared to earlier periods. So, for example, the copper mines in Etruria, famous in antiquity, were almost exhausted.
On the other hand, the 1st c. BC e. was a time of intensive construction. The treasures plundered in the provinces went to the construction of public buildings and luxurious palaces of the Roman rich. Since the era of the Gracchi, the construction of road routes has gained wide scope. The importation of skilled Greek craftsmen contributed to the revival of some branches of handicraft production, in particular ceramics and bronze casting. The center of the latter in the 1st century. BC e. Capua began to supply products of its craft (dishes, lamps) not only to Italy, but even to Northern Europe. The Etruscan city of Arretius, familiar to us from the war with Hannibal, widely developed ceramic production. Arretine tableware with relief ornamentation was a very good imitation of a special type of Greek tableware known as Samos.
The early empire (1st century) brought with it a temporary rise in Italian craftsmanship, caused by common causes known to us: the cessation civil wars, the relative safety of communications, the growth of domestic and foreign trade, and so on. The Arreta ceramics and the Capuan bronze industry reached their highest point of development. Vessels made in Arrecia are found in Morocco and Spain, on the Rhine and in Britain, and reach the eastern borders of the empire.
Next to these old centers of production, new ones began to rise. Coarser types of pottery (lamps and tiles) were produced in northern Italy, in Aquileia and Mutina. Parma, Mediolan (Milan), Patavius (Padua) and Pompeii were famous for their woolen products. The cities of Campania supplied Italy with blown glassware. Even Rome, which had not previously been a major manufacturing center, began to develop some specialized industries.
We are well aware of the handicraft production of Pompeii in the era immediately preceding their death (79). Among the things found there, most of which were produced locally, there are clay and bronze lamps (lamps), earthenware and bronze utensils, glass and iron products, scales, surgical instruments, and so on. A large number of craft workshops and shops are striking: they are found in almost every home. We find among them fullers, jewellers, masons and perfumers, bakeries, usually connected with mills, where animals or slaves served as labor force, glass workshops, forges, etc.
However, the picture of the handicraft prosperity of Italy changes in the 2nd century. The rise was a temporary phenomenon. The productive forces of the peninsula were undermined, and the Italian craft could not withstand the competition of those areas of the empire, which now, under the conditions of the Roman world (pax Romana), embarked on the path of intensive economic development. From the middle of the 1st c. Arretine pottery began to lose its first place in the market, yielding to its Gallic products. The same in the II century. happened with the bronze and glass products of the Capuan artisans: they were supplanted by similar Gallic products.
In the last century of the Republic, the economic development of the eastern provinces was hampered by the predatory policy of the Romans, as well as by external and internal wars. The Empire, as we have seen, has made significant improvements here. Even under the first emperors, the old industrial centers of the Eastern Mediterranean began to revive and, by their competition, accelerated the economic decline of Italy. In Phoenicia and Egypt, a new glass industry began to flourish. The finest semi-silk fabrics (with a linen base), made in Asia Minor, are widely used not only in the East.
Metallurgy began to develop intensively in the western provinces. Although the old silver mines in the south of Spain became less profitable due to the depletion of metal reserves, the lead deposits there began to be developed all the more vigorously. There has been a huge demand for lead since the cities of the West, following the example of Rome, began to use it for the manufacture of water pipes. Tin deposits were discovered on the western coast of Spain, the development of which made the Iberian Peninsula the main supplier of this valuable metal and pushed Britain with its oldest tin deposits into the background. New deposits of iron became known in Gaul (Liège). Intensive development was carried out large stocks metal in Norica and Illyria.
In the same period of the Early Empire, Gaul began to develop its own ceramic and textile production, acting as a dangerous competitor to Italy. Around the middle of the 1st c. Gallic red glazed ware decorated with reliefs (terra sigillata) appeared on the markets. Being cheaper than Arretinian dishes, it began to successfully compete with it.
However, only in the II century. industrial development of the provinces reached its highest point. Gaul was especially successful. This vast country, rich in natural productive forces, was late conquered by Rome and therefore subjected to predatory exploitation for a relatively short time during the Republic. Gaul and the Rhine regions become the main "workshop of Europe". Glass production, which appeared in the 1st century. in Lugdun (Lyon), spreads to Normandy and even penetrates into southern England. Still later, the glassmaking center was transferred to Cologne (Colonia Agrippina). Gallic brassware with native Celtic-style decorations is pushing Capuan bronze out of the markets of Northern Europe. Gallic pottery reaches full bloom. Competing with terra sigillata are black polished dishes made in Belgium. In Britain, local imitations of Gallic ceramics with Celtic-style decorations appear (in Colchester). In the Helvetian region (Switzerland), Vindonissa (Windisch) becomes the center for the production of terracotta lamps.
The metallurgy of the West continued to develop. New rich gold deposits were discovered in Dacia. In Britain, deposits of iron and lead were developed. The latter in bullion was exported to Rome for the manufacture of water pipes.
As for the organizational forms of production, on the whole it continued to be small-scale craft. Usually the owner of the workshop himself worked, in most cases - a freedman, alone or with a small number of slaves (1-2). Medium-sized enterprises employed 5-10 people. A craft workshop (officina) often served as a shop (taberna) at the same time. We see such a picture, for example, in Pompeii. In some branches of production, especially in ceramics, there were workshops that, according to ancient standards, could be called large: they consisted of 100 artisans and laborers each. The contracting system was widely practiced in the construction business. The contractor-entrepreneur recruited an artel of workers (they could include free artisans and laborers, as well as slaves released for quitrent or owned by the contractor) and entered into a certain agreement with the customer. During the era of the empire, the percentage of free workers in production increased all the time, especially in the provinces. However, in the state mines, the unfree labor of criminals, sentenced by the court to hard work in the mines (damnatio ad metalla), continued to be used. The freedmen were either workshop owners, or contractors, or managers in the industrial establishments of their patrons.
The position of free artisans and especially wage workers was difficult both in terms of their wages and in terms of their legal status. Cheap slave labor put pressure on the labor of the free, reducing their wages. The disenfranchised position of the slaves was reflected in their free comrades. If the independent small craftsman still enjoyed some recognition in Roman society, then the legal position of a free wage worker differed little from that of slaves.
From the book Submachine gun MP 38/40. Weapons of the German infantry [a few photos] the author Ivanov S V From the Mayan book [The Lost Civilization: Legends and Facts] by Ko MichaelHandicraft production and trade Yucatan was the main supplier of salt in Mesoamerica. Salt layers stretch along the entire coast of Campeche and along the lagoons located on the northern side of the peninsula, up to Isla Mueros in the east. The salt that Diego de Landa
From the book History of Rome (with illustrations) author Kovalev Sergey IvanovichHandicraft production The general trend in the development of production in the first two centuries of the empire was its growth in the provinces (especially in the west) and its slow decline in Italy. However, this process was complex and cannot be simplified. At the end of the Republic, handicraft production
From the book Daily Life of the People of the Bible author Shuraki AndreProduction The Bible mentions many devices, the purpose of which has remained obscure for centuries. Now they are known to us, however, many are the subject of lively discussions. These devices are cast in bronze or made of iron.
From the book On Art [Volume 2. Russian Soviet Art] author Lunacharsky Anatoly Vasilievich From the book Celtic Civilization and Its Legacy [edited] by Philip YangHome production and subsequent mass production. Individual manufacturing industries Many other manufacturing industries could be named, from high-quality home production to organized mass production of large
From the book Vikings. Sailors, Pirates and Warriors by Hez Yen From the book Medieval Europe. 400-1500 years author Koenigsberger HelmutHandicraft production and craft workshops It is difficult to name the reasons that would prevent the occupation of handicrafts in countryside and in the villages - as, in fact, it was at first. But the growing cities provided natural markets for all sorts of
From the book Ancient China. Volume 1. Prehistory, Shang-Yin, Western Zhou (before the 8th century BC) author Vasiliev Leonid SergeevichProduction and redistribution For Western Zhou, sources allow us to distinguish three regions in which the organization of production, primarily agricultural, differed from others due to differences in living conditions. Accordingly, there were different
From the book ISSUE I. PROBLEM AND CONCEPT. THE RISE OF HUMAN SOCIETY author Semenov Yuri Ivanovich1.2.3. Labor and production According to the materialistic understanding of history, the evolution of society is based on the development of social production, and social production is understood as the production of material goods or material production. So
From the book Terror and Democracy in the Stalin Era. Social Dynamics of Repression author Goldman Wendy Z.Production and Politics The purpose of the July 29th letter of the Central Committee of the CPSU(b) was to shake up the party committees, get rid of apathy and dispel the belief that there are no enemies in their organizations. However, the letter did not have the desired effect. Party members theoretically agreed
by Beauvois DanielGrain production Ukraine is traditionally called a granary, which is quite erroneously associated with the idea of fabulous abundance. The above pictures of peasant poverty are sufficient evidence that the surplus of grain came mainly from
From the book Gordian Knot of the Russian Empire. Power, nobility and people in the Right-Bank Ukraine (1793-1914) by Beauvois DanielDistillery Prosperity in all three counties of a large land economy contributed to the decree of 1890, which provided new benefits in distillery production. In fact, he only extended the privilege enjoyed by a small group
From the book Memories of Service author Shaposhnikov Boris MikhailovichPRODUCTION TO OFFICERS On May 15, 1902, the camp training period began, which ended on September 1 for the junior and August 6-10 for the senior class with the production of cadets to the first officer rank of second lieutenant. This training period was filled exclusively with fieldwork.
From the book History of Ukraine author Team of authorsProduction Last quarter of the 17th century. became the heyday of industry in the Ukrainian hetmanate. In Left-Bank Ukraine, the guild movement was widely developed, only, unlike in Polish times, it switched to civilian employment. had its own
From the book History of the Gauls the author Thevenot Emil4. Production Intensive mining undoubtedly entailed the development of production. The ore had to be first processed in order to get metal out of it. The recovery process, according to Catalan technology, took place in furnaces with tubular
In order to protect the cultural heritage of the whole world in 1972, UNESCO adopted a Convention signed by representatives of more than 150 countries. This Convention covers a list of more than 500 objects that make up the world cultural heritage. At the same time, almost 60% of these objects are located in Italy.
The rich historical past and such attention of UNESCO makes tours to Italy especially attractive. Thousands of tourists tend to spend their holidays in Italy. There is probably no such corner in this blessed country, where the eye of a vacationer would not look.
Holidays in Italy can turn into an exciting adventure. Tourists who have chosen a tour of Italy can enjoy a truly royal holiday. Breathtaking views of ancient and medieval historical, cultural, architectural monuments, unforgettable trips to large and small Italian cities, a trip to the islands, various voyages to the seas and lakes, dizzying skiing from snow-capped mountains, acquaintance with exquisite Italian cuisine, mud therapy and thalassotherapy, a variety of medical and business tours - all this is offered by hospitable Italy.
Briefly about the geography of Italy
Everyone knows the famous Italian "boot" - this is the Apennine Peninsula, on which Italy is spread. It stretches for 1300 km from northwest to southeast. The richness of landscapes, the riot of colors of nature and the mild climate are due to the central position of the peninsula in the Mediterranean, between Spain and Greece. And the proximity of these countries makes tours to Italy even more attractive.
The total area of Italy is a little over 300,000 sq. km. For 7500 km, the state is washed by four seas - Ligurian, Tyrrhenian, Ionian and Adriatic. The coast is the most densely populated (especially crowded during the holiday season, when many choose tours to Italy). It is rich in ports, resorts and industrial cities. In the same regions of Italy, many guests of the country prefer to relax.
In the north, the Alps stretch in an arc, which represent a natural climatic barrier. In some places it reaches a height of 4810 m (Mount Blanc) and accumulates decent hydropower reserves in Italy. With neighboring countries - France, Switzerland and Austria, Italy is connected by numerous passes and tunnels through the Alps. By the way, the Alps are central ski resort Europe, because of which many ski lovers aspire to vacation in Italy.
The picturesque lakes lying at the foot of the Alps are surrounded by mountains. Further to the south is the picturesque and fertile Padana Plain, located in the Po Valley, the largest river in Italy. With its beauties, it will punish the hearts of many travelers making a tour of Italy.
In the northwest, the Apennine Mountains, which border the Ligurian Gulf in an extended chain, stretch all the way to Sicily along the entire peninsula. Due to its calcareous and clay composition, karst phenomena are observed in the Apennines - the formation of very many caves, grottoes, funnels, rivers disappearing underground, etc.
Many caves in the Apennines are famous for their mineral springs and mud, which makes medical tours to Italy especially popular.
Italy has a little over 58 million inhabitants. True, due to a significant influx of immigrants, the demographic situation in the country has recently remained tense. Therefore, the consulates impose very strict requirements even on those who just want to relax in Italy.
Mostly immigrants from Morocco, the Philippines, Albania, China, the countries of the former Yugoslavia and the former republics of the Soviet Union immigrate to Italy.
Government of Italy
Italy is a bourgeois parliamentary republic, as determined by a referendum in 1946. At the head of the republic is the president, who is elected by the Parliament and representatives of regional assemblies for a period of 7 years.
Parliament is the highest body of legislative power and consists of two chambers, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, which are elected by the population by popular vote for a period of 5 years.
The Council of Ministers represents the executive power and is approved by the President and is responsible to him.
In political and administrative terms, Italy consists of 20 historically established regions, each of which, in turn, is divided into provinces. The provinces are divided into communes, which are governed by mayors. In total, there are 103 provinces and more than 8 thousand communes in Italy.
Due to its exceptional strategic position at the crossroads of trade routes between West and East, Italy has been subjected to military attacks throughout its history. The barbarians tried to capture it countless times. A sea of blood was shed in endless wars on its territory - and all for the sake of division and seizure of lands. That is why the Apennine Peninsula until the 19th century was covered with numerous principalities, duchies, kingdoms, city-states. Only in the second half of the 19th century did Italy emerge as a single state. Guides accompanying tours in Italy tell about numerous coups d'etat in great detail.
Multi-party system is feature political system of Italy. There are many unions here. At the same time, the internal life of the country is full of contradictions: modernity is combined with deep antiquity, poverty - with wealth.
Economy of Italy
In the past, Italy was an agricultural country. Nevertheless, thanks to the hard work of its citizens and the skillful policy of the authorities, the country managed to turn into an industrial power with a developed infrastructure and the main sectors of the economy in a short time. And at the moment, Italy is one of the seven most developed industrial countries with a market economy.
It is surprising that, having almost no minerals, Italy was able to build an industrial sector of the economy focused on the processing of raw materials. At the same time, the cost of labor is higher than the cost of raw materials. And this state of affairs is very surprising for the guests of the country who came to Italy to relax.
The Italian economy works on imported raw materials, and the country produces and exports almost everything known species products - industrial, household, transport, agricultural purposes.
Italy can boast of a highly developed industry: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, automotive industry, electric power industry, production of building materials, light, food, furniture industries, glass, faience, electrical household and many other goods. Some factories can be visited as part of some tours of Italy.
Thanks to its Food Industry Italy is famous for its pasta, preserves, olive oil, wine, etc. Revenues from tourism activities make up a decent part of the country's budget. And, despite the fact that it is quite difficult to get a visa to Italy, tours to this blessed country remain one of the very popular ones.
As in many other countries with a developed market economy, in Italy, in addition to large industrial enterprises, more specific gravity occupied by small and medium enterprises.
Fashion in Italy
A riot of fantasy, a flight of thought, unstoppable creativity, exquisite taste - distinguishing feature everything made in Italy, both in the field of fashion and in industrial production.
Every year in Rome and Florence grandiose fashion shows are held, gathering thousands of guests from all over the world. But still, Milan remains the center of fashion, which is also one of the tourist centers of Italy, constantly attracting those who want to relax and have fun.
It is not for the first time that the pret-a-porter collection of women's clothing has received the prestigious Occhio d'Oro award, equivalent to the Parisian Ditale d'Oro. The offices and production workshops of the legendary Italian stylists - Dolce and Gabbana, Armani, Trussardi, Versace, Ferre, Moschino, Laura Biagiotti, Critsia and others are concentrated in Milan. Many people make tours to Italy solely for the sake of these names.
Brief history of Italy
The history of Italy is rich and varied. And although experienced guides accompany travelers on all tours of Italy and talk in detail about all the monuments, some facts are worth remembering in advance. In ancient times, the peninsula was inhabited by various tribes: the Venets lived in the north of the Adriatic; the ligurs lived in the northwest of the peninsula; Latins - in the center; Italians - in the central and southern parts of the peninsula. In many places in Italy, during excavations, fragments of Mycenaean (Greek) bronze and ceramics were found. This suggests that between Italy and Greece already in the middle of the II millennium BC. there were close trade relations. It is known that between the VIII and VI centuries. BC. on the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily, the Greeks set up many colonies. It is believed that the VI and V centuries. BC. are the "golden" ages of the so-called Greater Greece, and the Greek cities in Italy Syracuse and Taranto competed in luxury even with Athens.
On South peninsula and Sicily along with Greek civilization at the end of the 8th century. BC. the powerful Etruscan civilization attracts attention. Until now, historians have not come to a common opinion about the origin of the Etruscans. For example, Herodotus, a historian of ancient Greece, believes that they come from Lydia (Asia Minor). The Etruscans settled between the rivers Arno and Tiber. Then their influence spread to the south and north - to the territories of the Padana Plain and Campania. The heyday of the Etruscan civilization falls on the VI century. BC. In the III century. BC. the Romans took control of them.
In the middle of the VIII century. BC. The Trojans founded Rome. As the legend tells, in 753 BC. the capital of the future powerful state was founded by Romulus. From the very beginning, the Romans proclaimed the conquest of the whole world as their main goal.
All the activity of the Roman state, which was formed from a small settlement on the Palatine Hill, was subordinated to this goal. When the sixth king reigned in Rome, the state was located on seven hills on the left bank of the Tiber. Each hill still has its own name, and if you happen to visit Italy on vacation or on a business trip, the locals will certainly tell the story of each hill.
In 509 B.C. the Romans expelled the seventh king, and, for the first time in the world, established a republican form of government. It lasted until the middle of the 1st century BC.
The Roman state was rapidly strengthening, developing and expanding due to the victories of Roman swords and well-trained legions. After three Punic wars with Carthage, Rome became a major state in the Mediterranean.
As a republic, Rome ceased to exist after the resounding victories of Julius Caesar in Gaul. Caesar's heir, Octavian Augustus, becomes the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which stretches over a vast expanse from Scotland in the west to Armenia in the east.
In 476 AD the western part of the grandiose Roman Empire ceased to exist, while its eastern part, known as Byzantium, held out until the middle of the 15th century. Many monuments that remained after the fall of a powerful empire are still being shown to lovers of antiquities who came to rest in Italy.
After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Italy was shaken by the raids of the Huns, Visigoths and Ostrogoths. At the end of the VI century. part of the territory of Italy (the north and part of the central regions) went to the Lombards, and the center and southern regions - to Byzantium. King of the Franks Charlemagne by the end of the VIII century. completely conquered Italy. Norman Crusaders in the XI - XII centuries. capture southern Italy and the islands. In the XIII - XIV centuries. they were replaced by the kings of the French Anjou dynasty. In the XV century. Italy consisted of 5 large states (the Kingdom of Naples, the Papal States, the Duchy of Milan, the Venetian and Florentine Republics), a large number of small counties (Savoia) and signories (the power of individual city-states). For tasty Italian lands in Italy in the XV - XVI centuries. there are endless wars between France and Spain.
Napoleon Bonaparte at the end of the 18th century conquers Italy, and the Republic of Venice at the beginning of the 19th century. belongs to Austria.
In the course of the national liberation movement led by the Risorgimento in 1861, Italy is united into a single whole and becomes a constitutional monarchy. Victor Emmanuel II of the Savoy dynasty became the first king of Italy.
At the beginning of the XX century. Italy is transforming from a capitalist power into an imperialist one. At the helm of power in the country in 1922 are the Nazis, led by Mussolini. During the Laterna Agreements in 1929 between the Pope and Mussolini in Rome, the creation of the sovereign state of the Vatican City was announced, which is becoming increasingly popular thanks to the pilgrimage tours of Italy.
Since 1935, Italy has been participating in wars of conquest: conquering Ethiopia and Albania, and in 1940 joining an alliance with Nazi Germany and enter World War II.
During the war, in June 1943, Anglo-American troops entered Italy, and a month later Mussolini's fascist dictatorship fell.
In 1946, an all-Italian referendum was held, as a result of which the monarchy was abolished, and Italy was again proclaimed a republic.
Art in Italy
The art of Italy is incredibly rich in masterpieces that were created in this country from the ancient era to the 18th century. This flourishing can be understood, given the unique historical conditions in which the country lived. Here is the richest heritage of the civilization of the Greeks, Etruscans, Romans, and, on the other hand, the very location of the country, stretching from Sicily to the Alps. This geography contributed to the influence of many external trends.
The era of barbarian invasions seriously affected the art of the country. At the same time, the influence of Byzantium was expressed in the use of simple forms of basilicas in architecture, endowed with powerful vaults and domes. Such, at first glance, the simplicity of forms was made up for by the very rich and varied decoration of the interior, marble decorations and magnificent mosaics that covered the walls, domes and apses from the inside. You can see this when you come to Italy on vacation. Many ancient cathedrals and churches tell their story better than any reference book.
In the XI - XIV centuries. in Italy, as in any other European country, many religious buildings are being built. Inside, these buildings are richly decorated with frescoes or mosaics depicting biblical scenes ("The Poor's Bible"). The architecture is dominated by Gothic, which is a modification of some elements of romanticism. For example, church vaults are raised to their maximum height, pilasters are increased in height, tall stained-glass windows are used, etc.
In Florence in the XV - XVI centuries. a group of architects, artists, philosophers, sculptors and poets in their creations begin to speak loudly about new revolutionary ideas in art, which formed the basis of humanism. Taking all the best from ancient art, the humanists laid the foundation for a new era in art - the era of the Italian Renaissance. That is why most tours of Italy include a visit to Florence in the program.
In the XVI century. Rome instead of Florence becomes the center of art. It was in Rome, on the basis of the Italian Renaissance, that a new style appeared - baroque. Italy becomes the birthplace of the Baroque and the Renaissance. On the basis of these styles, mannerism, naturalism, neoclassicism and other trends subsequently arise. And if you have a desire, you can diversify your vacation by visiting the museums that Italy is so famous for.
There is an opinion that Italy is the birthplace of saints, heroes and poets. But Italy has also given the world legendary musicians, great composers. In Italy, for the first time, musical notation and the first violin appeared, Vivaldi and Verdi were born and conquered the world with their music. Their operas are heard in all theaters of the world. And, of course, while relaxing in Italy, one cannot fail to visit the famous La Scala Opera House, which is located in Milan.
Italian cinema was born at the beginning of the 20th century in Turin. Subsequently, it began to develop rapidly, winning the hearts and minds of millions of viewers around the world. Further victorious procession of cinema continued in Rome. It was there that Chinechitta, an experimental center of cinematography, appeared and began to develop rapidly. This unique center gave the world a galaxy of famous directors, including Rossellini, De Santis, Fellini. Over the years, the names and works of other outstanding directors and actors have become known.
Folk crafts of Italy
Folk crafts in Italy are occupied by 5 million people working for almost 1.5 million enterprises. Among the main products are clothes, which are made mainly in Milan and Carpi (Emilia-Romagna). Natural silk and knitwear are produced in the area of Lake Como, furniture - in Milan, Brianza, Pesaro, Forli, fabrics - in Prato, artistic ceramics - in Faenza, Deruta. The production of leather and fur products is concentrated in Florence, musical instruments in the Marche region, and in Cremona, violins and other stringed musical instruments have been made for centuries. Arezzo, Valenza, Po have long been famous for their jewelry production, and Sardinia for filigree. Holidays in Italy will be nice to combine with shopping. And although the prices here are of European quality, the quality of some things is very high.
As a rule, cheese and wine are brought from tours to Italy as souvenirs. And fashionistas will be delighted with fashionable clothes and accessories.
Italian food
With this phrase alone, gourmet dishes of all kinds of colors and shades of taste come to mind. World famous spaghetti, pizza, espresso coffee - Italy has given the world many universally recognized dishes. But there is also a purely national Italian food: Mediterranean in the south, while in the north, given the influence of the harsh climate of the mountains, it is represented by more high-calorie dishes. Each region of Italy, and what is there - each province - has its own national flavor, its favorite dishes, wines, cheeses, desserts, etc.
Rest in Italy is a wonderful gift for yourself and your loved ones. This country does not leave indifferent even convinced skeptics. The warm sun, young wine and radiant smiles of the locals will help you forget about your boring business.
Fragment of a painting by Alessandro Voltolini © toscana.artour.it/
Alessandro Voltolini creates both modern and traditional artistic interiors using different techniques such as trompleuille and fresco. Also, his workshop is engaged in the restoration of antiques, decoration and antique furniture finishing - everything to make your interior unique. Figurines made of artificial marble, indistinguishable from the real one, and the new "Tables Peintes" for those who want to decorate the room in a practical and individual way. Voltini products are also suitable for exterior finish, commercial premises, exhibitions, public places. The works of this workshop are examples of real arts and crafts.
The address: Jacopo Cozzarelli street, 13 (Via J. Cozzarelli, 13)
Bracelet made by Il Galeone © toscana.artour.it
"Galeon" is a young and dynamic company, already operating not only in the local but also in the international market. Specializes in both gold and gemstone jewelry as well as less expensive silver and semi-precious stones. Their products can be recommended to those who love the classics, but do not want to completely abandon the individual style. Their latest collection is called "Silver Tales" and is based on drawings by Giovanna Giudici.
Painted wooden spheres © Senarte Sienaperta / Flickr.com
Luca Pollai was born in 1966 in Siena, where he lives to this day. His artistic talent developed at the State Institute of Art named after Duccio di Buoninsegna. In parallel, he studied music, having received a diploma at the R. Franchi Music Institute. In 1996, he opens his "Art Lab" in the center of Siena, on Santa Caterina Street, where he works in sculpture and graphics. Knowledge of the technique of the great masters of the past and his creative approach opened the way for him in various areas of art: artistic painting on wood and boxes, cold painting on glass, silk-screen printing on wood, gilding with gold leaf, drawings on fabrics and artistic reproduction of art objects. Luka also has knowledge of modern technologies, creating logos and prototypes for interiors.
For ten years now, visitors to the candle factory have been able to personally observe how wax from a colorless bar becomes an artistic candle, decorated and painted.
All products are handmade and, as mentioned above, the whole process takes place in front of visitors. In the arsenal of masters there is a huge range of colors and shapes that allow original and unique candles, so they can be used for a variety of reasons, the main of which is to decorate and enliven the interior of your home.
Examples of candles produced at the Factory © lafabbricadellecandele.com
Only used for production natural materials. Each candle is unique. Creative curiosity constantly pushes the masters to implement new ideas and continuous development.
Handicraft shops in Siena © Yulia Grigoryeva / Shutterstock.com
The combination of beauty, passion, excellent handicraft - this is what real craftsmanship, turning into art, means. Artistic Tiezzi ceramics is also a reproduction of the great artistic heritage of Siena. And various objects in which the plots of the famous Palio races and symbols of city contrades become the theme of the artist. All products are painted by hand, according to the ancient tradition of Sienese ceramists. Landscapes with views of Siena can decorate the walls of every home. Taste and loyalty to tradition, characteristic of this workshop, satisfy even the most demanding customers.
The address: Fontebranda street (Via Fontebranda, 77)
Country of cities. In a relatively small area of Italy, covering an area of 300 thousand square meters. km, during this period there were 278 cities that were episcopal centers, not counting many hundreds of others. Therefore, Italy is primarily a country of cities and urban culture. Many cities have been preserved in it from the Roman era, and their importance has grown faster than in other countries of Europe (see Ch. 6).
In the XI - XII centuries. in the cities of Northern Italy and Tuscany, handicraft and trade activities are intensifying. In Milan, Piacenza, Florence, Pisa, Siena, fine cloths are produced, in Lucca - silk fabrics, in Cremona - linen. Ships are being built in Pisa, Genoa, Venice. Venice also produces leather, furs, canvas, and its glassware is gaining pan-European fame. Milan also became a well-known center for the production of weapons, metal armor and combs for carding wool (kard), necessary in cloth making. The craft of masters of stone and wood, as builders were called in Italy, is growing: they build city fortifications in Milan, Pavia, Bergamo, Modena, Cremona and other cities, temples, palaces and bridges.
Craftsmen and merchants of Italian cities were united in guild corporations (arti). Milan at the end of the 12th century. a union of handicraft corporations arose - Credenza St. Ambrose. Powerful guild corporations are being created in Florence - Lana, which produced fine cloth from high-quality foreign wool; Kalimala, engaged in the processing and improvement of coarse cloth.
The development of handicrafts leads to a lively commodity exchange. So, in Milan, fairs take place four times a year, at which merchants from Italian and foreign cities trade in weapons, cloth, and oriental goods. Merchants from Emilia, Tuscany, Lombardy brought their goods to Venice, and German merchants kept their permanent courtyard (fondaco) there. From Venice, goods went on ships to the countries of the entire Eastern Mediterranean. Great importance had a fair that took place twice a year in Ferrara, where merchants from Tuscany, Lombardy, and often also from German lands and from France gathered. Thus, by the XII century. trade took place both within individual urban districts and between different regions country. The fairs acquired the significance not only of all-Italian centers of money exchange, but to a large extent of all-European ones.
The direct international trade relations of Italian cities with Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Egypt also grew. Genoa did business with Provence, Catalonia and had strongholds in North Africa. Venice established economic dominance in the lands of Dalmatia. During the Crusades (see Ch. 8), the port centers of Italy: Ancona, Pisa, Genoa and Venice established strong trade ties with Byzantium and the Levant (Middle East), where they founded their trading posts. There they carried cloth, bread, metal products; from there - spices, cotton, dyes. This exchange brought them huge profits. Thus, the development of crafts and trade markedly increased the economic power of Italian cities.
The struggle of cities with feudal lords. The further development of handicrafts and trade was hindered by the old feudal order, under which the solution of all economic and political issues was in the hands of the spiritual and secular feudal lords of the city. Otto I gave them the right to court, administrative management, collecting market and customs duties, minting coins, and external relations.
Therefore, popolans (from popolo - people) - the trade and craft population of cities - embarked on the path of open struggle with seniors. They were supported by the Valvassors - petty knights interested in weakening the lords and in developing trade. In 1035, with the support of the Valvassors, the popolans expelled the lord-archbishop from Milan, and a few years later, after a stubborn struggle, Milan became an independent commune. By the beginning of the XII century. legal recognition Bologna, Mantua, Pisa, Cremona, Ferrara and other cities received political independence.
City communes. The urban commune became the political and administrative center of Italian society. Power in it passed into the hands of a board of consuls (advisers), who were elected from the merchants, valvassors and captains (nobility). Craftsmen and small merchants were not allowed to the board. The College of Consuls was the executive body, and the legislative power was in the hands of a council of trustees, elected by a limited number of full-fledged citizens of Kredenza. Sometimes a parliament was also convened - a meeting of all citizens with voting rights. All the income of the commune now went not in favor of the feudal lord, but at the disposal of the city, which significantly increased its economic capabilities. Moreover, the power of the commune also extended to the contado, the rural district, and often to the distretto, a larger territory on which other subordinate metropolitan cities were located. So the commune develops into a city-state of the republican type. These were the city republics of Florence, Siena, Milan, Ravenna, Pisa and others.
The establishment of the power of the city over the contado and disretto undermined the strength and rights of the feudal lords, although they continued to resist in every possible way, attacked the trade caravans of the townspeople, and frustrated the decisions of the commune. In the XII century. popolans begin an armed struggle with the grandees (feudal lords), destroy and set fire to their castles, forcibly relocate the grandees to the city. The grandees also build castles and towers in the city, sometimes agreeing with the commune, under whose vigilant supervision they are now. The communes - republican city-states - undermined the old system of feudal hierarchy, but did not abolish feudal relations. They replaced the feudal lords. The city remained a feudal organism, kept vassals on its territory, strengthened the corporate guild system, waged wars against neighboring commune cities.
City and village. The rapid development of cities led to a noticeable strengthening of commodity-money relations, which could not but influence the evolution of the agrarian system. The city demanded an increase in agricultural production, which led to the drainage of swamps, clearing of wastelands, and most importantly, to an increase in rent of the libellar or emphyteutic type (see Chapter 6). The tenants were peasants, petty knights and townspeople. The urban elite acquires land, and often not only for rent, but also for ownership. Since the 11th century cash rent is widespread. The development of commodity-money relations did not rule out an increase in food rent, since the products collected from peasants and tenants were sent to the market by their owners, often townspeople. Along with a significant stratum of personally free peasants, various categories of peasants remained in Italy, who were in heavy personal and land dependence on the feudal lords.
Rural communities. The growth of the political and economic influence of cities, the weakening of the power of the feudal lords led to the revival of rural communities that have survived in Italy since the Lombard times. In the XI - XII centuries. communities had meadows, pastures, forests, wastelands, less often arable land. For the use of land, they paid chinsh to the feudal lord, but they could give them, rent them out and even sell them. By the end of the XII century. many communities emerge victorious from the struggle against the seigneurs and achieve self-government. Cities during this period often helped the peasant communities in the fight against the feudal lords, who were their common enemy. With their help, judicial power over peasant communities and the right to collect certain feudal taxes were taken away from the feudal lords. Freed from the power of the feudal lords, the rural communities, however, did not receive complete independence or enjoyed it for a very short time. As a rule, they were soon brought under their control by neighboring cities. The city, as it were, replaced for the rural communities their former feudal lord. At the same time, cities recognized the autonomy of rural communities. The transition of rural communities from the rule of the feudal lords to the rule of the cities, although it did not save them from the exploitation to which the countryside was now subjected by the city, played a positive role on the whole, since the city was the center of progressive economic development. The inclusion of rural districts in the city-state contributed to further and even more rapid development commodity-money relations and the liberation of peasants from personal dependence in most regions of Northern and Central Italy.
In the XII-XIV centuries. rural communities are turning into rural communes - self-governing communities. Like city communes, they elected officials(consuls), created their own financial, judicial apparatus, and even issued legislative decrees - statutes that govern the entire life of the commune.
Papal States. The development of the Papal States, which occupied a significant part of Central Italy, proceeded differently. The secular state of the popes was one of the ordinary feudal principalities. Since its sovereign was at the same time the head of the Catholic Church, and the capital - Rome - its organizational and ideological center, the history of this state was significantly influenced by the European policy of the papacy, which was determined at that time by the desire of the popes to rule over the secular sovereigns of Europe. In the 11th-12th centuries, when, as a result of the successes of the papacy in the fight against the empire, its influence in Europe significantly increased, the popes managed to significantly expand the territory subject to them in Italy at the expense of part of Tuscany, Spoleto, Benevento; at the end of the 12th century. they subjugated one of the largest Italian cities - Perugia. Economically, the Papal States lagged behind Northern Italy and Tuscany. Cities here developed more slowly; the most severe forms of personal dependency persisted in the countryside. contributed to the backwardness domestic politics the papacy, which refused to grant the rights of self-government to Rome and other cities of the Papal States and retained the old forms of feudal exploitation in the countryside. Even the capital of the Papal States - Rome - was a large nest of feudal lords; in addition to the papal residence, there were about two hundred feudal castles here. Rome economically lagged behind such developed centers as Milan or Florence. Significant income to the population of Rome was brought by the service of the papal court and numerous pilgrims.
The reactionary nature of the policy of the papacy in relation to the cities was clearly manifested in the 40s of the XII century, when the struggle for the establishment of a commune intensified in Rome. In 1143 the townspeople and petty knights seized the government buildings on the Capitol, proclaimed a republic, and elected a 56-member Senate; the leaders of the republic considered themselves the heirs of the traditions of Ancient Rome. The rebels demanded the transfer of supreme power in the city to the commune.
Arnold of Brescia began to enjoy special influence in the newly created Roman Republic. He had previously led an opposition movement in his native Brescia against the bishop and wealthy clergy. For this he was expelled from Italy. He spent several years in France, where he became a follower of the progressive philosopher of the 12th century. Abelard, who was subsequently condemned by the church (see ch. 21). The teachings of Arnold of Brescia, who demanded the church to give up land holdings and wealth, opposed the secular power of the popes, protested against the domination of the feudal nobility, dreamed of the power of Rome and the unity of Italy, aroused particular malice and fear among the church leaders. Under the influence of the sermons of Arnold of Brescia, the Roman townspeople destroyed the houses of cardinals, feudal castles; The Pope had to flee Rome.
At this time, Frederick I Barbarossa invaded Italy with his army (see Ch. 11). Hoping for Frederick's help in the fight against the pope, the Senate of the Roman Republic offered him the imperial crown. However, Frederick rejected this offer, entered Rome and accepted the crown from Pope Adrian IV. The violence of the German robber knights led to an outburst of indignation among the townspeople, who offered armed resistance to the emperor. The Pope imposed an interdict on Rome; in connection with this, the flow of pilgrims to the city stopped, which deprived the townspeople of income. In the Senate of the Roman Republic, the moderate elements gained the upper hand; the irreconcilable opponent of the papacy, Arnold of Brescia, was expelled from the city, and then, on the orders of Frederick, was captured and tortured (1155). The Roman Republic was abolished and the power of the pope restored. The most significant reasons for the death of the Roman commune are the weakness of the artisan and commercial population of Rome and the lack of its own organization, as well as the significant political and economic strength of such a feudal lord as the pope.
Southern Italy. In southern Italy and Sicily, feudal relations developed under foreign domination, which left an imprint on their history. In the XI century. these areas of Italy were captured by the Normans; in 1130, Southern Italy and Sicily, under Roger II, united into a single state - the Kingdom of Sicily (see Ch. 6). The Norman conquest accelerated the development of feudal relations: the conquering kings seized most of the lands of the local nobility and peasants and distributed them as fiefs to the Norman feudal lords and the church. They left large land holdings as a royal domain. The peasants, who turned into dependent holders, lost their freedom to a large extent. In the XII century. in the Sicilian kingdom there were many serfs who did not have the right to move, as well as semi-free - villans, who enjoyed a limited right to move. Both those and others were obliged to perform corvée and pay dues in kind. In general, the process of development of feudal relations in the Sicilian kingdom was slower than in Northern and Central Italy. Therefore, in the XII century. in the south, a significant stratum of free Allodist peasants survived, living in communities and stubbornly fighting against feudal subjugation. They repeatedly raised uprisings against the feudal lords and the royal power that protected their interests.
The fate of the southern Italian cities was different than in the North. In the XI-XII centuries. they also reached a significant prosperity, which, however, was associated mainly with transit trade, since their own handicraft production and local trade were poorly developed here. The southern Italian cities failed to achieve independence, and they forever remained subordinate to a strong central government.
The struggle of the cities of Northern and Central Italy against the German feudal lords. In the second half of the XII century. Italy was under the threat of foreign subjugation. The German feudal lords, led by Frederick I Barbarossa, considered the formal belonging (since the 10th century) of a significant part of Italian lands to the so-called Roman Empire as the basis for their seizures in Italy.
Frederick I Barbarossa made five trips to Italy. The threat of foreign enslavement primarily hung over the prosperous northern Italian cities. Before the Italian campaigns of Frederick Barbarossa, the dependence of the cities of Lombardy and Tuscany on the empire was nominal: in some cases they gave the emperor cash subsidies and supplied auxiliary units, thus paying off the foreign titled feudal lord, whose supreme rights they seriously did not recognize. Now there was a real threat of losing the economic and political independence of the cities, won with such difficulty in the fight against local seniors.
Already in the first trip to Italy, Frederick showed himself to be a strangler of city liberties. This was revealed even more clearly at the Ronkal Diet of 1158, which, under its pressure, decided to completely eliminate the independence of the northern Italian cities. The obliging lawyers from Bologna, invited to the Diet, justified this decision with the well-known formula of Roman law: "Whatever pleases the sovereign has the force of law." Frederick failed to achieve the implementation of the Roncal decrees, despite the brutal reprisal against the Milanese, who first refused to obey them (see Ch. 11).
The destruction of Milan and the plunder of the country by the German invaders aroused indignation throughout Italy and raised the spirit of resistance in the cities where podestas appointed by the emperor were already hosted. In 1167, the Lombard League was founded, which included the newly rebuilt and revived Milan, Mantua, Ferrara, Cremona, Brescia and other cities. The Kingdom of Sicily and Venice were drawn into the alliance against the emperor, fearing the strengthening of the empire's position in northern Italy. The papacy, which during this period fought with the empire for dominance over feudal Europe, also supported the league of Lombard cities. Thus, the struggle against the German feudal invaders acquired an all-Italian significance; its outcome decided the fate of the whole country. The Lombard League erected the fortress of Alessandria (named after the Pope Alexander III) at the crossing of the Po River - a barrier against new German invasions. When Frederick crossed the Alps for the fifth time, he could not take this fortress. Having suffered a complete defeat by the Lombard League at the Battle of Legnano (1176), Frederick was forced to capitulate to the pope. After the peace treaty concluded at Constanta in 1183 between the pope and the emperor (see chapter 11), the Roncal decrees were essentially annulled and all the communal liberties of the northern Italian cities were restored. The defeat of the empire politically significantly strengthened the papacy. The victory of the commune cities in the struggle against the German feudal lords saved Italy from foreign enslavement and contributed to the socio-economic and cultural prosperity of the country in subsequent centuries.
In the course of the struggle against the German invaders in Italy at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century. political movements of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, hostile to each other, arose. The name "Guelphs" arose from the family name of the Saxon Dukes of Welfs, hostile to the Hohenstaufen dynasty; "gibellines" - from the Latinized name of one of the Hohenstaufen castles (in German - Waiblingen). The Guelphs were opponents of the emperors and allies of the pope as the head of the anti-imperial camp in Italy; they relied mainly on the trade and craft strata of the cities. The Ghibellines - supporters of the emperors - were looking for social support among the feudal nobility. The bloody feud of these political groups within the cities and in their foreign policy left its mark on the whole life of Italy in the 13th century. Often cities joined hostile political camps only because of their economic rivalry: if Florence was a Guelph city, then its competitors in the field of trade and craft - Pisa and Lucca - were Ghibelline cities. The fierce struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines further complicated the political situation in Italy.
Initially, many middle-class plebeians were engaged in the craft in Rome. The craftsman usually worked in the workshop or watched her work and participated in the sale of products. The workshops were small, and the number of auxiliary slave labor in them was limited.
Slave labor was more widely used in mines and in hard work associated with public construction, such as temples, or the grandiose "cesspool of maxim" - an underground drain that served to collect soil water.
With the growth of slavery in Rome, cheap slave labor gradually began to supplant the labor of a free producer.
From the 2nd century BC e. the number of slaves in Rome increased greatly and slave labor was widely introduced into all branches of handicraft production. Along with small workshops, larger ones arose, in which slaves mainly worked, and not only in auxiliary, but also in more complex work.
The owners of the workshops were mostly freedmen. More often these were middle-class people who did not participate in the labor process themselves. The most successful of them reached a fairly high social position. A slave could also become the owner of the workshop, paying his master dues.
The Roman citizen treated the craft with contempt. But many of the wealthy citizens received payment for renting houses, premises, plots of land, mines, lakes suitable for trades.
In the late period of the empire, the disintegration of slaveholding relations led to the predominance of free artisans in production, who, however, were attached to their profession. By virtue of the law, the profession of a craftsman became not only obligatory, but also hereditary.
Craftsmen united in various colleges; created in the VI century. BC e., they were professional associations of free artisans. These associations of artisans on the basis of professions did not concern production interests, they were limited to common cults. Over time, artisans of narrow specialties began to enter professional associations, and admission to these colleges became more limited.
In late republican and early imperial times, when a huge number of people were concentrated in the hands of individual wealthy families.
In the early 1900s, household colleges appeared, which included people of various professions, both from among the slaves and freedmen. The members of these boards enjoyed a number of advantages: they participated in domestic festivities, religious ceremonies, meals, and each member of the college, including a slave, could count on burial in the family crypt - the columbarium. These boards are widely included in everyday life. Their appearance was also desirable for the highest circles of the slave-owning nobility: it contributed to the strengthening of the system of subordination of dependent people.
In II-III centuries. n. e. Collegiums of "small people" were especially widespread. Such boards included people of different professions, with a small income, which allowed each member of the association to make the necessary contributions. The members of the college of "small people" were mainly freedmen from the lower strata, as well as plebeians and artisan slaves.
The leading role in these colleges belonged to their patrons and other persons who held honorary positions. They were wealthy freedmen and representatives of the slave-owning nobility. A slave could also achieve the honorary position of master. But in essence, the upper strata of the "small people" colleges were isolated from the mass of ordinary members.
Colleges of "little people" were a convenient form of municipal organization until, during the period of the late empire, the disintegration of slaveholding relations led to the emergence of new forms of social organization of the artisan population. At this time, by legislative order, the colleges become a direct tool for the enslavement of the lower urban strata of society.
Metal mining and processing were known in ancient Italy in the earliest period of history. state formations. They developed especially highly in Etruria, where bronze casting and processing of precious metals reached an extremely high level.
Italy itself is not rich in fossil metals, but significant deposits of iron ore were located on the island of Ephalia in the Tyrrhenian Sea.
The method of smelting and processing iron was the same as in Greece. “Blacksmiths forge pieces of metal partly into weapons, partly into picks and sickles and other tools skillfully prepared by them,” says one ancient historian.
With the development of slavery in Rome, metallurgy reached its highest level. This was facilitated by the conquest of new territories, rich in metal deposits, and a large influx of labor.
Of particular importance in the development of Roman metallurgy were the Spanish mines. Spain is rich in minerals. Nowhere on earth, says Strabo, is there so much gold, silver, copper and iron in a natural state.
Of the extraction of gold in Spain, Pliny said that Asturias, Galecia and Lusitania annually yield 20,000 pounds of gold, most of which, however, is produced by Asturias, and no other country of the world abounded in gold for so many centuries as it.
Preliminary exploration was limited to the removal of the upper layer of the earth and a thorough study of the content of metal signs in it.
The arrangement of the mines was basically the same as in Greece, in the Lavrian mines, but there were some technical improvements in the Roman mines of Spain. The drifts were made somewhat wider, more often used wooden fasteners and mechanical devices for lifting ore from the mine and, most importantly, drainage mechanisms were used, the device of which was based on the use of the Archimedean screw. The sump screw was rotated by one or two slaves, who, holding onto a horizontal bar with their hands, stepped onto the propeller blades. Such a mechanism made it possible not only to pump out excess water in adits, but also to divert underground flows, draining passages for rock sampling.
It is known about Galecia that there is no silver in it, but a lot of gold. They mined gold not in mines, but in an open way, using the power of swift mountain streams, which, washing away the banks, destroy rocks and break off large blocks full of golden sand. People engaged in gold mining collect these stones and break the blocks saturated with golden sand. After that, they wash the earth and the resulting gold is melted in the forges.
Another method of extracting gold is described in detail by Pliny, who says that this method “exceeds the work of the giants themselves. According to this method, mountains are undermined by the light of lamps, and adits are arranged in them at a great distance ... In order to avoid collapses, vaults are erected in many places to support the mountain. Encountered hard rocks are overcome by fire and acids, or more often they are cut through, since the workers suffocate from heat and smoke; it happens that pieces weighing 150 pounds are cut off. Day and night workers carry these pieces on their shoulders and pass them on to each other in the dark. The light is seen only by those who work in the upper ranks... At the end of the work, the pillars of the vaults are hemmed starting from the inner ones. The mountain begins to collapse, and only the watchman at its top notices it. The watchman summons the workers with shouts and signs, and at the same time he himself runs down the mountain. The settled mountain falls with such a crash that it is difficult for a person to even imagine. Winners among unimaginable noise and wind look at the ruins of nature. But there is still no gold. For when they dug, they did not yet know whether they would find it ... "
Further, Pliny says that the collapse of the mountain is washed away by streams of water from mountain rivers, for which water pipes are arranged through rocks and stones, sometimes over a long distance. The eroded earth flows down the gutters, and the gold settles in these gutters on ledges of rough thorns.
Pliny also has information about the smelting of gold. “Dug out of the earth is crushed, washed, burned and turned into powder. The remaining sediment is ejected from the smelter, pounded and remelted. The smelters are made of white clay-like rock of the earth, since no other earth can withstand the pressure of air, fire and hot metal.
Processing technique various metals the Romans did not undergo significant changes compared to the technique known to the Greeks. One can only speak of a wider application of certain branches of production that were already widespread in Hellenistic times.
This applies especially to the use of the technique of gilding silver and copper objects by means of amalgamation. This technique was widely used in the late republican and early imperial times, when luxury penetrated the life of the rich strata of slave owners and expensive silver utensils and numerous household silver items began to be used in large quantities.
In the processing of metals, a lathe was often used, the prototype of which was the well-known lathe for woodworking.
Roman craftsmen knew how to make steel, Spanish steel was especially famous, but the Romans did not use liquid iron smelting, although they had observations of the transformation of iron into a liquid state. “Iron,” says Pliny, “when melted, becomes liquid and then breaks like a sponge.”
Some technical improvements also occurred in blacksmithing: the bellows device was improved, a nail board was invented, which was used along with old technology forging nails. They used locksmith equipment more widely.
Iron products have become more diverse. But in general, throughout the entire time of the development of Roman metallurgy, it remained at a relatively low level, only the production of luxury goods and art developed rather quickly.
Labor in the workshops was divided into many specialized processes carried out by different people. The narrow specialization and division of labor in the craft survived until late antiquity. In the IV-V centuries. n. e. in the silversmith's shop, even small silver vessels were made by many people.
Ceramic products had the most wide application throughout the Mediterranean, and Roman culture inherited many traditions that had long existed in Italy itself, but especially developed in Greece and in the countries of the Hellenistic East. For the manufacture of dishes used manual Potter's wheel. The construction of pottery kilns did not change essentially, but kilns for mass production often reached significantly large sizes and allowed higher firing of ceramics. The previously known techniques for making relief ceramics using molds and stamps were widely used.
The production of red-glazed embossed ceramics has become widespread. She replaced the painted and black-glazed Greek dishes.
One of the largest centers that produced relief red-lacquer ware was Arrezium in Italy. About two dozen ceramic workshops with the remains of their products were found in the vicinity of this city. Arretino masters have reached perfection in the manufacture of
red glaze, which has an even color and a shiny surface, reminiscent of the shine of sealing wax. Vessels are decorated with relief ornaments and figurative images arranged usually in horizontal bands.
The method of making red-glazed pottery was transferred from Italy to the western Roman provinces. In the I and II centuries. and. e. the workshops of Gaul flourished especially. The production of red-glazed tableware was no less extensive in the eastern Roman provinces, mainly in the centers of Asia Minor - Pergamon and Samos. Its forms and ornamentation were closely related to Hellenistic Greek traditions. Red glaze has neither the density nor the sheen of Italy.
The most significant area of Roman pottery is associated with the production of building materials: bricks, tiles, ceramic pipes for heating walls and floors, and other products. Wooden molds were used to mold various building materials.
Fired brick was one of the building materials for the first time among the Romans. It was used to build not only residential buildings and large public buildings, but also grandiose defensive walls and towers, underground channels and viaducts, which often reached great lengths.
Such structures required a large amount of building material. A special organization of this production was required. The work was carried out not only in ordinary ergasteria by slaves and artisans, but in large part by the forces of soldiers. This is evidenced by the stamps on the bricks and on the tiles with the designation of the number and name of the legion.
Roman fired bricks are comparatively flat and usually square in shape. Half-sized bricks were used, having triangular shape. The sizes of building bricks were different depending on their purpose.
In the architecture of the Roman thermae (baths), special building materials were used to construct the heating system of floors and walls. In the hot section of the thermae, hypocausts were arranged, the floor was laid on top of numerous, low columns, usually built of square or round bricks. Hot air flowed through the floor.
With great ingenuity, ceramic fixtures were made that served to heat the walls.
One of the types of such bricks has the form of a large slab, on the same plane of which four moldings are located in the corners in the form of protrusions 6-8 cm high. Wall cladding was made from such slabs, laying the slabs on the edge so that the protrusions were facing the inner part of the wall . Thanks to the protrusions, the facing of the slabs remained at some distance from the wall, leaving space for the circulation of hot air, which heated the walls of the room.
Hollow bricks or large vessels were inserted into the ceilings of the vaults to facilitate construction and improve acoustics. Extremely light hollow bricks, probably also used in laying vaults, were made in Spain from special clay. Such bricks could float on water.
In Roman construction and engineering, a large number of pottery pipes were used. Of these, underground water pipes, gutters for roofs were made, they were used as chimneys and in the heating system.
Depending on the purpose, the sizes and shapes of the pipes were different. To connect a section of pipes, their ends were made of different diameters: the outlet end ended in a narrow sleeve, which was inserted into a wide opening of an adjacent pipe. The joints were coated with lime mortar.
A wide variety of ceramic building materials among the Romans was associated with the needs of engineering technology, civil and military construction. The flourishing of this area of pottery, however, hardly affected the production of roof tiles. Compared to Greek tiles, Roman tiles look modest, their forms are monotonous, artistic ornamentation has largely disappeared, being partially preserved in the Eastern Provinces.
An example of a common type of Roman roof tile is found in Herculaneum. Two collapsed roof slopes, consisting of flat and semicircular tiles in cross section, have been preserved here.
When the Romans in the 1st c. BC e. penetrated into the Middle East, they found a well-developed glass industry here. Local craftsmen made precious two-color vessels, the surface of which was covered with carved images resembling carved cameos. They made glassware covered with gilding and decorated with engraving, as well as the finest mosaic objects from multi-colored glass threads. Bundles of these threads, cut transversely into numerous plates, preserved the image of a flower on each plate. From such plates, using a mold, the master created colorful mosaic vessels.
All these achievements were adopted by the Romans and used by Italian masters.
But the main achievement of Roman glassmaking took a different path, the origins of which are also connected with the Eastern Mediterranean.
In Syria, master glassmakers invented a method for melting transparent, colorless glass. In the 1st century BC e. blowpipe was invented. Its use has opened up completely new possibilities. wide production relatively cheap, mass production of glass products. Syrian masters already in the 1st century. n. e. they transferred their art of glassmaking to the soil of Italy, and from there the production of blown glass spread to all the western provinces and continued to develop there until late antiquity.
Roman glassmaking techniques were varied. Blowing out of the tube was done with and without molds. Forms allowed language
prepare inflated figured vessels with relief ornamentation, relief letters and signs. Vessels made by simple blowing are extremely diverse, and most of them are the most mass-produced.
As glassmaking developed, the methods of decorating vessels became more complicated: polishing and engraving began to be used more, creating continuous patterns on the surface of vessels, decorating them with applied colored threads and solderings of dark glass.
The invention of transparent colorless glass is associated with another great achievement of Roman craft - the manufacture of window panes.
In Italy, window glass was already used in the 1st century BC. n. e. Subsequently, this area of glassmaking was very widely developed, especially in the Western Roman provinces, and continued to develop in these
areas up to the 4th c. n. e. Here were excavated workshops of glass production with numerous remains of production.
For the manufacture of window glass, wooden molds were used. They were pre-moistened with water and then the glass mass was poured, stretching it to the brim with tongs. The edges of window panes are always rounded and slightly thickened. The usual size of window glass is 30-40 cm. However, much larger glass sizes are known. In Pompeii, bronze window frames were found with remnants of glass measuring 1.0 X 0.70 and 54 X 0.72 m, glass thickness 0.013 m.
In Italy, crafts were especially highly developed in Etruria and Campania. Craftsmen-weavers made woolen thin and coarse fabrics, there were also dyers and fullers.
Fullers required bulky equipment that was not available to small farms. The center of this production in Campania was Pompeii. Several large fulling shops have been excavated here. On the process of work give detailed information on the wall paintings of Pompeii houses.
To remove fat from wool, the cloth was soaked in vats-stupas. In large workshops there were several such stupas, fenced off from each other by low partitions. The fabric was filled with urine and covered with a special clay capable of absorbing fat. A special craftsman - a fullon - trampled and crumpled the fabric with his feet, leaning on the partitions, then on special tables the fabric was beaten with rolls, then thoroughly washed with water and dried on poles or ropes. After drying, they piled using the skin of a hedgehog or a thistle-type plant, and fumigated white fabrics with sulfur, stretching the fabric over a hemispherical frame. After fumigation, the fabric was rubbed with special clay, which gave strength and shine to the surface, and for the final finish, the folded pieces of fabric were placed under a press.
The image of a press with two vertical screws is on one of the Pompeian frescoes. An authentic wooden press was found in Herculaneum. It consists of a vertically placed wooden frame, in the center of which a single wooden screw is fixed. The screw rotated with the help of a through rod, pressing on the horizontal boards, between which the fabric was clamped.
Within the same fulling workshop, the work was divided between different persons. The chief craftsman was a fullon, whose work was very hard, performed by his free artisans. The workshop also had other workers, including women, who performed lighter processes related to final finishing fabrics.
Significant development was noted for joinery and carpentry, and there were cabinet makers. Numerous wooden items were preserved in Herculaneum, charred from hot ash during the eruption.
Vesuvius in 49 AD e .: tools, a bed with a raised wall at the head, a chest, a small carved cabinet, and other items made mainly by local craftsmen. In Roman times, even more than in Hellenistic times, veneer made from expensive types of overlaid wood was used in carpentry.
More greater value had a carpentry business. From wooden beams interfloor decking and rafters were made for roofing. Carpenters also knocked together temporary sheathing on both sides of the walls, which were built mainly from layers of rubble and lime mortar. Carpentry was especially developed in the forest-rich northern provinces.
Information about the construction of two wooden bridges has been preserved. One of them was built by Caesar across the Rhine, the other - much more grandiose - was built across the Danube by order of Emperor Trajan (beginning of the 2nd century AD). The flooring of this bridge rested on wooden arches supported by stone bulls.
Carpentry has been widely introduced into military equipment associated with the construction of siege engines: the needs of military affairs largely determined the development of certain branches of crafts. This applies, in particular, to the development of the leather business. For the armament of Roman soldiers, shields and shoes were required, which were made of leather, armor was also made of leather.
The shields were made of thick leather stretched over a wooden frame. Legionnaires' shoes had a very thick sole, shod with wide-headed nails, whole pieces of leather were sewn to the edges of the sole, cut into narrow strips inside. Such a device allowed air to pass through and made it possible to quickly and easily strengthen shoes on the foot. The image of a leather workshop is preserved on one of the Pompeian frescoes.
Masonry is primarily associated with the extraction of stone. The types of stone are varied, and not every stone is suitable for construction. In the immediate vicinity of Rome was not good stone and had to be brought in. Vitruvius advises to withstand a broken stone in the air for two years, and those rocks that give cracks should be used for foundations, and well-preserved ones should be used in the above-ground part of buildings.
The methods of extracting stone and the tools used in the quarries remained basically the same as those of the Greeks. Special mention should be made of the method of extracting large monoliths to extrude the entire shaft of the column. The surviving traces of an unfinished excavation of a monolithic block in one of the quarries in the western province give an idea of the technique of these works. On the leveled surface of the rock, grooves with recesses for wedges are still visible, located at the same distance. Wedges used metal or wood. The wood for the wedges was taken hard and dry. It was hammered into depressions and soaked for a long time, as a result of which a crack formed along the furrow line and the necessary part of the rock monolith broke out. The stone processing technique of the Romans remained largely old.
One of the main construction techniques was the method of constructing an arch and a semicircular vault from wedge-shaped stone blocks laid dry. The complexity of such structures lay in the need for careful cutting of wedge-shaped blocks, the dimensions and shape of which had to match exactly. Sometimes blocks were hewn in quarries from a solid mass of stone, which made it possible to carry out a better fit of the sides of the blocks with less loss.
When laying out an arch or arched vault, a temporary wooden frame was used, on which wedge-shaped blocks were laid, starting with two lower, supporting, stones and ending with one, upper, castle,
which, bursting other stones, held the entire complex structure of the vault.
For masonry stone facings walls, stones were hewn in the form of blocks, laid dry and connected with staples and iron braces filled with lead. The inner part of the wall was filled with the so-called Roman concrete: smooth alternating layers of rubble and lime mortar, which formed a strong monolith.
During the imperial period, wall cladding with tiles made of marble and other rare types of stone was widely used. The surface of the tiles was carefully polished, contributing to the impression of splendor and luxury.
Those areas of handicraft work that were directly related to the achievements of monumental Roman construction and to the urgent needs of military and engineering equipment reached the highest and most original development.
