First World War was the result of the aggravation of the contradictions of imperialism, unevenness, spasmodic development of the capitalist countries. The most acute contradictions existed between Great Britain - the oldest capitalist power and economically strengthened Germany, whose interests clashed in many areas. the globe especially in Africa, Asia, Middle East. Their rivalry turned into a fierce struggle for dominance in the world market, for the seizure of foreign territories, for the economic enslavement of other peoples. Germany set itself the goal of defeating the armed forces of England, depriving her of colonial and naval primacy, subordinating the Balkan countries to her influence, and creating a semi-colonial empire in the Middle East. England, in turn, intended to prevent the establishment of Germany in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East, destroy its armed forces, and expand its colonial possessions. In addition, she hoped to capture Mesopotamia, to establish her dominance in Palestine and Egypt. Sharp contradictions also existed between Germany and France. France sought to return the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, captured as a result of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871, and also to take the Saar basin from Germany, to preserve and expand its colonial possessions (see Colonialism).
Bavarian troops are sent by rail towards the front. August 1914
Territorial division of the world on the eve of World War I (by 1914)
Poincaré's arrival in St. Petersburg, 1914. Raymond Poincaré (1860-1934) - President of France in 1913-1920. He pursued a reactionary militaristic policy, for which he received the nickname "Poincaré War".
Partition of the Ottoman Empire (1920-1923)
An American infantryman affected by exposure to phosgene.
Territorial changes in Europe in 1918-1923.
General von Kluck (in a car) and his staff on big maneuvers, 1910
Territorial changes after the First World War in 1918-1923.
The interests of Germany and Russia clashed mainly in the Middle East and the Balkans. Kaiser's Germany also sought to tear Ukraine, Poland and the Baltic states away from Russia. Contradictions also existed between Russia and Austria-Hungary because of the desire of both sides to establish their dominance in the Balkans. Tsarist Russia intended to seize the Bosporus and Dardanelles, Western Ukrainian and Polish lands, which were under the rule of the Habsburgs.
The contradictions between the imperialist powers had a significant impact on the alignment of political forces in the international arena and the formation of opposing military-political alliances. in Europe at the end of the 19th century. - early 20th century two largest blocs were formed - the Triple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; and the Entente as part of England, France and Russia. The bourgeoisie of each country pursued its own selfish goals, which sometimes contradicted the goals of the allies in the coalition. However, all of them were relegated to the background against the background of the main contradictions between the two groupings of states: on the one hand, between England and her allies, and Germany and her allies, on the other.
The ruling circles of all countries were to blame for the outbreak of the First World War, but the initiative in unleashing it belonged to German imperialism.
The desire of the bourgeoisie to weaken the growing class struggle of the proletariat and the national liberation movement in the colonies, to divert the working class from the struggle for its social liberation by war, to decapitate its vanguard by means of repressive wartime measures, played an important role in the outbreak of the First World War.
The governments of both hostile groups carefully concealed from their peoples the real aims of the war, tried to instill in them the false idea of the defensive nature of military preparations, and then of the conduct of the war itself. The bourgeois and petty-bourgeois parties of all countries supported their governments and, playing on the patriotic feelings of the masses, came up with the slogan of "defending the fatherland" from external enemies.
The peace-loving forces of that time could not prevent the outbreak of a world war. The real force capable of largely blocking its way was the international working class, which on the eve of the war numbered over 150 million people. However, the lack of unity in the international socialist movement thwarted the formation of a united anti-imperialist front. The opportunist leadership of the Western European Social Democratic parties did nothing to put into practice the anti-war decisions taken at the congresses of the 2nd International held before the war. A misconception about the sources and nature of the war played a significant role in this. The right-wing socialists, finding themselves in the warring camps, agreed that "their" own government had nothing to do with its emergence. They even continued to condemn the war, but only as an evil approaching the country from outside.
The First World War lasted over four years (from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918). 38 states participated in it, more than 70 million people fought on its fields, of which 10 million people were killed and 20 million maimed. The immediate cause of the war was the assassination by members of the Serbian conspiratorial organization Young Bosnia on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo (Bosnia) of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand. Incited by Germany, Austria-Hungary delivered an obviously impossible ultimatum to Serbia and on July 28 declared war on Serbia. In connection with the opening of hostilities by Austria-Hungary in Russia on July 31, general mobilization began. In response, the German government warned Russia that if mobilization was not stopped within 12 hours, then mobilization would also be announced in Germany. By this time, the German armed forces were already fully prepared for war. The tsarist government did not respond to the German ultimatum. On August 1 Germany declared war on Russia, on August 3 on France and Belgium, on August 4 Great Britain declared war on Germany. Later, most of the countries of the world were involved in the war (on the side of the Entente - 34 states, on the side of the Austro-German bloc - 4).
Both warring sides started the war with armies of many millions. Military operations took place in Europe, Asia and Africa. The main land fronts in Europe: Western (in Belgium and France) and Eastern (in Russia). According to the nature of the tasks being solved and the military-political results achieved, the events of the First World War can be divided into five campaigns, each of which included several operations.
In 1914, in the very first months of the war, the military plans developed in the general staffs of both coalitions long before the war and designed for its short duration failed. Fighting on Western front started in early August. On August 2, the German army occupied Luxembourg, and on August 4 invaded Belgium, violating its neutrality. The small Belgian army was unable to offer serious resistance and began to retreat north. On August 20, German troops occupied Brussels and were able to move unhindered to the borders of France. Three French and one British armies were advanced to meet them. On August 21-25, in a border battle, the German armies threw back the Anglo-French troops, invaded Northern France and, continuing the offensive, reached the Marne River between Paris and Verdun by the beginning of September. The French command, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to launch a counteroffensive. The Battle of the Marne began on 5 September. It was attended by 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies (about 2 million people). The Germans were defeated. On September 16, oncoming battles unfolded, called "Run to the Sea" (they ended when the front reached the sea coast). In October and November, bloody battles in Flanders exhausted and balanced the forces of the parties. From the Swiss border to the North Sea stretched a solid front line. The war in the West took on a positional character. Thus, Germany's calculation to defeat and withdraw France from the war failed.
The Russian command, yielding to the insistent demands of the French government, decided to move on to active operations even before the end of the mobilization and concentration of their armies. The purpose of the operation was to defeat the 8th German Army and capture East Prussia. On August 4, the 1st Russian Army under the command of General P.K. Rennenkampf crossed the state border and entered the territory of East Prussia. During fierce battles German troops started moving west. Soon the border of East Prussia was crossed by the 2nd Russian Army of General A.V. Samsonov. The German headquarters had already decided to withdraw troops beyond the Vistula, but, taking advantage of the lack of interaction between the 1st and 2nd armies, the mistakes of the Russian high command, the German troops managed to inflict a heavy defeat at the beginning of the 2nd army, and then push back the 1st army to her starting positions.
Despite the failure of the operation, the Russian army's invasion of East Prussia had important results. It forced the Germans to transfer two army corps and one cavalry division from France to the Russian front, which seriously weakened their strike force in the West and was one of the reasons for its defeat in the Battle of the Marne. At the same time, by their actions in East Prussia, the Russian armies fettered the German troops and kept them from assisting the allied Austro-Hungarian troops. This made it possible for the Russians to inflict a major defeat on Austria-Hungary in the Galician direction. During the operation, the threat of an invasion of Hungary and Silesia was created; the military power of Austria-Hungary was significantly undermined (the Austro-Hungarian troops lost about 400 thousand people, of which more than 100 thousand were captured). The Austro-Hungarian army until the end of the war lost the ability to conduct operations independently, without the support of German troops. Germany was again forced to withdraw part of its forces from the Western Front and transfer them to the Eastern Front.
As a result of the 1914 campaign, neither side achieved its goals. Plans for waging a short-term war and winning it at the cost of one general battle collapsed. On the Western Front, the period of mobile warfare is over. Began positional, trench warfare. On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany; in October, Turkey entered the war on the side of the German bloc. New fronts were formed in Transcaucasia, Mesopotamia, Syria and the Dardanelles.
In the 1915 campaign, the center of gravity of hostilities shifted to the Eastern Front. Defense was planned on the Western Front. Operations on the Russian front began in January and continued with short breaks until late autumn. In the summer, the German command carried out a breakthrough of the Russian front near Gorlitsa. Soon it launched an offensive in the Baltic states, and the Russian troops were forced to leave Galicia, Poland, part of Latvia and Belarus. However, the Russian command, having switched to strategic defense, managed to withdraw its armies from the enemy's blows and stop its advance. The bloodless and exhausted Austro-German and Russian armies went on the defensive along the entire front in October. Germany was faced with the need to continue a long war on two fronts. Russia bore the brunt of the struggle, which provided France and England with a respite to mobilize the economy for the needs of the war. Only in the fall did the Anglo-French command conduct an offensive operation in Artois and Champagne, which did not significantly change the situation. In the spring of 1915, the German command for the first time used on the Western Front, near Ypres, chemical weapon(chlorine), as a result of which 15 thousand people were poisoned. After that, gases began to be used by both warring parties.
In the summer, Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente; in October, Bulgaria joined the Austro-German bloc. The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation of the Anglo-French fleet was aimed at capturing the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, breaking through to Constantinople and withdrawing Turkey from the war. It ended in failure, and the Allies at the end of 1915 ceased hostilities and evacuated troops to Greece.
In the 1916 campaign, the Germans again shifted their main efforts to the West. For their main blow they chose narrow section front in the Verdun region, since a breakthrough here posed a threat to the entire northern wing of the Allied armies. The fighting near Verdun began on February 21 and continued until December. This operation, called the Verdun meat grinder, was reduced to exhausting and bloody battles, where both sides lost about 1 million people. The offensive operations of the Anglo-French troops on the Somme River, which began on July 1 and continued until November, were also unsuccessful. The Anglo-French troops, having lost about 800 thousand people, could not break through the enemy's defenses.
Of great importance in the 1916 campaign were operations on the Eastern Front. In March, at the request of the Allies, Russian troops carried out an offensive operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. She not only pinned down about 0.5 million German troops on the Eastern Front, but also forced the German command to stop attacks on Verdun for a while and transfer part of the reserves to the Eastern Front. In connection with the heavy defeat of the Italian army in Trentino in May, the Russian high command launched an offensive on May 22, two weeks ahead of schedule. During the fighting, the Russian troops on the Southwestern Front under the command of A. A. Brusilov managed to break through the strong positional defense of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. The enemy suffered big losses- about 1.5 million people killed, wounded and captured. The Austro-German command was forced to transfer large forces to the Russian front, which eased the position of the allied armies on other fronts. The Russian offensive saved the Italian army from defeat, eased the position of the French near Verdun, and hastened the appearance of Romania on the side of the Entente. The success of the Russian troops was ensured by the use of General A. A. Brusilov new form breaking through the front through simultaneous strikes in several sectors. As a result, the enemy lost the opportunity to determine the direction of the main attack. Along with the Battle of the Somme, the offensive on the Southwestern Front marked the beginning of a turning point in the course of the First World War. The strategic initiative passed completely into the hands of the Entente.
On May 31 - June 1, the largest naval battle in the entire First World War took place off the Jutland Peninsula in the North Sea. The British lost 14 ships in it, about 6800 people were killed, wounded and captured; the Germans lost 11 ships, about 3,100 men killed and wounded.
In 1916, the German-Austrian bloc suffered huge losses and lost its strategic initiative. Bloody battles drained the resources of all the warring powers. The situation of the workers has deteriorated sharply. The hardships of the war, their awareness of its anti-people character caused deep dissatisfaction among the masses. In all countries, revolutionary sentiments grew in the rear and at the front. A particularly rapid upsurge of the revolutionary movement was observed in Russia, where the war revealed the corruption of the ruling elite.
Military operations in 1917 took place in conditions of a significant growth of the revolutionary movement in all the belligerent countries, and the strengthening of anti-war sentiments in the rear and at the front. The war significantly weakened the economy of the opposing factions.
The advantage of the Entente became even more significant after the US entered the war on its side. The state of the armies of the German coalition was such that they could not take active action either in the West or in the East. The German command decided in 1917 to switch to strategic defense on all land fronts and concentrated its main attention on waging unlimited submarine warfare, hoping in this way to disrupt the economic life of England and withdraw it from the war. But, despite some success, the submarine war did not give the desired result. The military command of the Entente moved to coordinated strikes on the Western and Eastern fronts in order to inflict a final defeat on Germany and Austria-Hungary.
However, the offensive of the Anglo-French troops, undertaken in April, failed. On February 27 (March 12) a bourgeois-democratic revolution took place in Russia. The Provisional Government that came to power, heading for the continuation of the war, organized a large offensive of the Russian armies with the support of the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. It began on June 16 on the Southwestern Front in the general direction of Lvov, but after some tactical success, due to the lack of reliable reserves, the enemy’s increased resistance bogged down. The inaction of the allies on the Western Front allowed the German command to quickly transfer troops to the Eastern Front, create a powerful grouping there, and go on the counteroffensive on July 6. The Russian units, unable to withstand the onslaught, began to retreat. The offensive operations of the Russian armies also ended unsuccessfully on the Northern, Western and Romanian fronts. The total number of losses on all fronts exceeded 150 thousand people killed, wounded and missing.
The artificially created offensive impulse of the masses of soldiers was replaced by an awareness of the senselessness of the offensive, unwillingness to continue the war of conquest, to fight for interests alien to them.
Who fought with whom? Now this question will surely baffle many ordinary people. But Great War, as it was called in the world until 1939, claimed more than 20 million lives and forever changed the course of history. For 4 bloody years, empires collapsed, peoples disappeared, alliances were concluded. Therefore, it is necessary to know about it at least for the purposes of general development.
By the beginning of the 19th century, the crisis in Europe was obvious to all major powers. Many historians and analysts cite various populist reasons why who fought with whom before, which peoples were fraternal to each other, and so on - all this had practically no meaning for most countries. The goals of the warring powers in the First World War were different, but main reason there was a desire of big capital to spread its influence and get new markets.
First of all, it is worth considering the desire of Germany, since it was she who became the aggressor and actually unleashed the war. But at the same time, one should not assume that it only wanted war, and the rest of the countries did not prepare attack plans and only defended themselves.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Germany continued to develop rapidly. The empire had a good army, modern types armaments, a powerful economy. The main problem was that it was possible to unite the German lands under a single flag only in the middle of the 19th century. It was then that the Germans became an important player on the world stage. But by the time of the formation of Germany as great power the period of active colonization was already missed. England, France, Russia and other countries had many colonies. They opened good market sales for the capital of these countries, made it possible to have cheap labor, an abundance of food and specific goods. Germany did not have this. Commodity overproduction led to stagnation. The growth of the population and the limited territories of their settlement formed a food shortage. Then the German leadership decided to move away from the idea of being a member of the commonwealth of countries, having a secondary voice. Sometime towards the end of the 19th century, political doctrines were directed towards building the German Empire as the world's leading power. And the only way to do this is war.
Other countries thought similarly. The capitalists pushed the governments of all major states towards expansion. First of all, Russia wanted to unite as many Slavic lands as possible under its banners, especially in the Balkans, especially since the local population was loyal to such patronage.
Turkey played an important role. The world's leading players closely watched the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and waited for the moment to bite off a piece from this giant. Crisis and anticipation were felt throughout Europe. There was a row bloody wars on the territory of modern Yugoslavia, after which the First World War followed. Who fought with whom in the Balkans, sometimes the locals of the South Slavic countries themselves did not remember. The capitalists drove the soldiers forward, changing allies depending on the benefits. It was already clear that, most likely, something larger than a local conflict would happen in the Balkans. And so it happened. At the end of June, Gavrila Princip assassinated Archduke Ferdinand. used this event as a pretext for declaring war.
The warring countries of the First World War did not think what the conflict would result in. If you study in detail the plans of the parties, it is clearly seen that each was going to win due to the rapid offensive. No more than a few months were allotted for hostilities. This was due, among other things, to the fact that before that there were no such precedents in history, when almost all powers participate in the war.
On the eve of 1914, two alliances were concluded: the Entente and the Triple. The first included Russia, Britain, France. In the second - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Smaller countries united around one of these alliances. With whom was Russia at war? With Bulgaria, Turkey, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Albania. As well as a number of armed formations of other countries.
After the Balkan crisis in Europe, two main theaters of military operations were formed - Western and Eastern. Also, hostilities were fought in the Transcaucasus and in various colonies in the Middle East and Africa. It is difficult to list all the conflicts that the First World War gave rise to. Who fought with whom depended on belonging to a particular alliance and territorial claims. For example, France has long dreamed of regaining the lost Alsace and Lorraine. And Turkey is land in Armenia.
For the Russian Empire, the war turned out to be the most costly. And not only in economic terms. On the fronts, Russian troops suffered the greatest losses.
This was one of the reasons for the start of the October Revolution, as a result of which a socialist state was formed. The people simply did not understand why those who were mobilized by the thousands went to the West, and only a few returned.
Intensive was basically only the first year of the war. The subsequent ones were characterized by positional struggle. Many kilometers of trenches were dug, countless defensive structures were erected.
The atmosphere of a positional permanent war is very well described in Remarque's book All Quiet on the Western Front. It was in the trenches that the lives of soldiers were grinded, and the economies of countries worked exclusively for the war, reducing costs for all other institutions. 11 million civilian lives were claimed by the First World War. Who fought with whom? There can be only one answer to this question: capitalists with capitalists.
World War I is one of the greatest tragedy in the history of the world. Millions of victims who died as a result of geopolitical games the mighty of the world this. This war has no clear winners. Completely changed political map, four empires collapsed, in addition, the center of influence shifted to the American continent.
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There were five empires on the world map: the Russian Empire, the British Empire, the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, as well as such superpowers as France, Italy, Japan, tried to take their place in world geopolitics.
To strengthen their positions, the states tried to form unions.
The most powerful were the Triple Alliance, which included the central powers - the German, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, and the Entente: Russia, Great Britain, France.
Main background and goals:
Speaking briefly about the First World War, US President Thomas Woodrow Wilson believed that it did not start for any reason, but cumulatively for all at once.
Important! Gavrilo Princip was arrested, but the death penalty could not be applied to him, because he was not 20 years old. The terrorist was sentenced to twenty years in prison, but he died of tuberculosis four years later.
Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia to purge all authorities and the army, eliminate persons with anti-Austrian convictions, arrest members of terrorist organizations, and, in addition, allow the Austrian police to enter the territory of Serbia for investigation.
Two days were given to fulfill the ultimatum. Serbia agreed with everything except the admission of the Austrian police.
July 28th, under the pretext of not complying with the ultimatum, Austro-Hungarian Empire declares war on Serbia. From this date officially count down the time when the First World War began.
The Russian Empire has always supported Serbia, therefore it began to mobilize. On July 31, Germany delivered an ultimatum to stop mobilization, and gave 12 hours to complete. The response announced that the mobilization was taking place exclusively against Austria-Hungary. Despite the fact that Wilhelm ruled the German Empire, a relative of Nicholas the Emperor of the Russian Empire, August 1, 1914 Germany declares war on the Russian Empire. Then Germany concludes an alliance with the Ottoman Empire.
After the German invasion of neutral Belgium, Britain did not remain neutral, declaring war on the Germans. August 6 Russia declares war on Austria-Hungary. Italy is neutral. August 12 Austria-Hungary begins to fight with Britain and France. Japan opposes Germany on August 23. Further along the chain, more and more new states are involved in the war, one after another, all over the world. The United States of America enters only on December 7, 1917.
Important! England first used tracked fighting vehicles, now known as tanks, during the First World War. The word "tank" means tank. So British intelligence tried to disguise the transfer of equipment under the guise of tanks with fuel and lubricants. Subsequently, this name was assigned to combat vehicles.
The main battles are unfolding on the western front, in the direction of Belgium and France, as well as the East - from Russia. With the accession of the Ottoman Empire began a new round of operations in the eastern direction.
Chronology of Russia's participation in the First World War:
Attention! The field postman wore a lush mustache, but during the gas attack, the mustache prevented him from wearing a gas mask tightly, because of this, the postman was severely poisoned. I had to make a small antennae so as not to interfere with wearing a gas mask. The postman was called.
The results of the war for Russia:
Irreversible consequences occurred on the world stage, the cause of which was the First World War:
The results of the armed conflict:
The role of Russia in the 1st world war
Results of the First World War for Russia
Russia in the First World War 1914-1918 had victories and defeats. When the First World War ended, she received the main defeat not from an external enemy, from herself, an internal conflict that put an end to the empire. Who won the conflict is unclear. Although the Entente with its allies is considered the winner, but their economic condition was deplorable. They did not have time to recover, even before the start of the next conflict.
To maintain peace and consensus among all states, the League of Nations was organized. She played the role of an international parliament. Interestingly, the United States initiated its creation, but they themselves refused membership in the organization. As history has shown, it became a continuation of the first, as well as a revenge of the powers offended by the results of the Versailles Treaty. The League of Nations here proved to be an absolutely ineffective and useless body.
Today no one remembers when it was World War I who fought with whom and because of what the conflict itself began. But millions of soldiers' graves throughout Europe and modern Russia do not let us forget about this bloody page in history, including our state.
The beginning of the last century was quite tense - revolutionary sentiments in the Russian Empire with regular demonstrations and terrorist attacks, local military conflicts in the southern part of Europe, the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the exaltation of Germany.
All this did not happen in one day, the situation developed and escalated over decades and no one knew how to “blow off steam” and at least delay the start of hostilities.
By by and large each country had unsatisfied ambitions and claims to its neighbors, which, in the old fashioned way, they wanted to solve with the help of force of arms. They just didn’t take into account the moment that technological progress gave real “infernal machines” into human hands, the use of which led to a bloody massacre. It was with these words that veterans described many battles of that period.
But in a war there are always two conflicting sides that are trying to get their way. During WWI, these were Entente and Central Powers.
In unleashing a conflict, it is customary to place all the blame on the losing side, so let's start with it. to the list of Central Powers on different stages wars included:
There were only three states in the Entente:
Both alliances were formed at the end of the nineteenth century, and for some time they balanced the political and military forces in Europe.
The realization of the inevitable major war on several fronts at the same time often stopped them from making hasty decisions, but the situation could not continue like this for a long time.
The first state to announce the start of hostilities was Austro-Hungarian Empire. As enemy spoke Serbia, which sought to unite under its command all the Slavs in the southern region. Apparently, this policy was not particularly liked by the restless neighbor, who did not want to get a powerful confederation at his side that could jeopardize the very existence of Austria-Hungary.
Reason for declaring war was the murder of the heir to the imperial throne, who was shot dead by Serbian nationalists. Theoretically, this would have ended - this is not the first time that two countries in Europe have declared war on each other and, with varying degrees of success, carried out offensive or defensive operations. But the fact is that Austria-Hungary was only a protege of Germany, which had long wanted to reshape the world order in its favor.
The reason was failed colonial policy of the country who got involved in this fight too late. One of the advantages of having a huge number of dependent states was a market that was practically unlimited. Industrialized Germany desperately needed such a bonus, but could not get it. It was impossible to resolve the issue peacefully, the neighbors safely received their profits and did not burn with the desire to share with someone.
But the defeat in hostilities and the signing of surrender could somewhat change the situation.
From the above lists, it can be concluded that no more than 7 countries, but why then is the war called the World War? The fact is that each of the blocks had allies who entered the war or left it at certain stages:
These countries did not make a decisive contribution to the overall victory, but we must not forget their active participation in the war on the side of the Entente.
In 1917, the United States joined this list, after another attack by a German submarine on a passenger ship.
Russia was able to fulfill the minimum plan for this war - ensure the protection of the Slavs in southern Europe. But the main goal was much more ambitious: control over the Black Sea straits could make our country a truly great maritime power.
But to divide Ottoman Empire and the then leadership failed to get a few of its most “tasty” fragments. And given the social tension in the country and the subsequent revolution, slightly different problems arose. The Austro-Hungarian Empire also ceased to exist - the worst economic and political implications for the initiator.
France and England were able to gain a foothold in leading positions in Europe, thanks to impressive indemnities from Germany. But Germany was waiting for hyperinflation, the abandonment of the army, a severe crisis with the fall of several regimes. This led to the desire for revenge and the NSDAP at the head of state. But the United States was able to capitalize on this conflict, incurring minimal losses.
Do not forget about what the First World War is, who fought with whom and what horrors it brought to society. The growth of tension and the conflict of interests may once again lead to such irreparable consequences.
This unprecedented war must be brought to complete victory.
Whoever thinks about peace now, who desires it, is a traitor to the Fatherland, his traitor.
August 1, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia. The First World War (1914-1918) began, which became the second Patriotic War for our Motherland.
How did it happen that the Russian Empire was drawn into the First World War? Was our country ready for it?
Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Chief Researcher at the Institute of World History of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IVI RAS), President of the Russian Association of Historians of the First World War (RAIPMV) Evgeny Yuryevich Sergeev told Foma about the history of this war, about what it was for Russia.
Visit to Russia of French President R. Poincaré. July 1914
Evgeny Yuryevich, the First World War (WWI) is one of the main directions of your scientific activity. What influenced the choice of this topic?
This interest Ask. On the one hand, the significance of this event for world history leaves no doubt. This alone can inspire a historian to engage in WWI. On the other hand, this war still remains, to a certain extent, "terra incognita" national history. The Civil War and the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) overshadowed it, relegated it to the background in our minds.
No less important are the extremely interesting and little-known events of that war. Including those whose direct continuation we find during World War II.
For example, there was such an episode in the history of WWI: On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany., being in alliance with Russia and with other countries of the Entente, supplied weapons and military equipment to Russia. These deliveries went through the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER). The Germans organized an entire expedition (sabotage team) there in order to blow up the tunnels and bridges of the CER and interrupt this communication. Russian counterintelligence officers intercepted this expedition, that is, they managed to prevent the elimination of the tunnels, which would have caused significant damage to Russia, because an important supply artery would have been interrupted.
- Marvelous. How is it, Japan, with which we fought in 1904-1905 ...
By the time the WWI began, relations with Japan were different. Relevant agreements have already been signed. And in 1916, an agreement on a military alliance was even signed. We had a very close collaboration.
Suffice it to say that Japan gave us, although not free of charge, three ships that Russia lost during the Russo-Japanese War. "Varangian", which the Japanese raised and restored, was among them. As far as I know, the Varyag cruiser (the Japanese called it Soya) and two other ships raised by the Japanese were bought by Russia from Japan in 1916. On April 5 (18), 1916, the Russian flag was raised over the Varyag in Vladivostok.
At the same time, after the victory of the Bolsheviks, Japan participated in the intervention. But this is not surprising: after all, the Bolsheviks were considered accomplices of the Germans, the German government. You yourself understand that the conclusion of a separate peace on March 3, 1918 (Brest peace) was essentially a stab in the back of the allies, including Japan.
Along with this, of course, there were quite specific political and economic interests Japan in the Far East and Siberia.
- But were there other interesting episodes in WWI?
Certainly. It can also be said (few people know about this) that the military convoys known from the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 were also in the WWII, and also went to Murmansk, which in 1916 was specially built for this. Was open Railway linking Murmansk with the European part of Russia. The deliveries were quite significant.
Together with the Russian troops, a French squadron operated on the Romanian front. Here is the prototype of the squadron "Normandie - Neman". British submarines fought in the Baltic Sea alongside the Russian Baltic Fleet.
Cooperation on the Caucasian front between the corps of General N. N. Baratov (who, as part of the Caucasian army, fought there against the troops of the Ottoman Empire) and British forces is also a very interesting episode of WWI, one might say, a prototype of the so-called “meeting on the Elbe” during the Second World War . Baratov made a march and met with British troops near Baghdad, in what is now Iraq. Then it was the Ottoman possessions, of course. As a result, the Turks were squeezed into pincers.
Visit to Russia of French President R. Poincaré. Photo 1914
- Evgeny Yurievich, but who is still to blame forunleashing the First World War?
The blame clearly lies with the so-called Central Powers, that is, with Austria-Hungary and Germany. And even more in Germany. Although WWI began as a local war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, but without the firm support that was promised to Austria-Hungary from Berlin, it would not have acquired first a European, and then a global scale.
Germany needed this war very much. Its main goals were formulated as follows: to eliminate the hegemony of Great Britain on the seas, to seize its colonial possessions and to acquire "living space in the East" (that is, in Eastern Europe) for the rapidly growing German population. There was a geopolitical concept of "Middle Europe", according to which the main task of Germany was to unite European countries around itself into a kind of modern European Union, but, of course, under the auspices of Berlin.
For the ideological support of this war in Germany, a myth was created about the "encirclement of the Second Reich by a ring of hostile states": from the West - France, from the East - Russia, on the seas - Great Britain. Hence the task: to break through this ring and create a prosperous world empire with its center in Berlin.
- In the event of its victory, what role did Germany assign to Russia and the Russian people?
In case of victory, Germany hoped to return the Russian kingdom to the borders of about the 17th century (that is, before Peter I). Russia, in the German plans of that time, was to become a vassal of the Second Reich. The Romanov dynasty was supposed to be preserved, but, of course, Nicholas II (and his son Alexei) would have been removed from power.
- How did the Germans behave in the occupied territories during WWI?
In 1914-1917, the Germans managed to occupy only the extreme western provinces of Russia. They behaved quite reservedly there, although, of course, they carried out requisitions of the property of the civilian population. But there was no mass deportation of people to Germany or atrocities directed against civilians.
Another thing is 1918, when German and Austro-Hungarian troops occupied vast territories in the conditions of the actual collapse of the tsarist army (I remind you that they reached Rostov, the Crimea and the North Caucasus). Mass requisitions for the needs of the Reich had already begun here, and resistance detachments appeared, created in Ukraine by nationalists (Petlyura) and Socialist-Revolutionaries, who came out sharply against the Brest Peace. But even in 1918, the Germans could not particularly turn around, since the war was already coming to an end, and they threw their main forces on the Western Front against the French and British. but partisan movement against the Germans in 1917-1918 in the occupied territories, however, was noted.
World War I. Political poster. 1915
Session of the III State Duma. 1915
- What did Russia do to prevent war?
Nicholas II hesitated to the end - to start a war or not, offering to resolve everything contentious issues at the peace conference in The Hague by international arbitration. Such offers from Nicholas were made to Wilhelm II, the German emperor, but he rejected them. And therefore, to say that the blame for the outbreak of the war lies with Russia is absolute nonsense.
Unfortunately, Germany ignored Russian initiatives. The fact is that German intelligence and the ruling circles were well aware that Russia was not ready for war. And Russia's allies (France and Great Britain) were not quite ready for it, especially Great Britain in terms of ground forces.
Russia in 1912 began to carry out a large program of rearmament of the army, and it should have ended only by 1918-1919. And Germany actually completed preparations for the summer of 1914.
In other words, the "window of opportunity" was quite narrow for Berlin, and if you start a war, then it should have started in 1914.
- How justified were the arguments of the opponents of the war?
The arguments of the opponents of the war were quite strong and clearly formulated. There were such forces among the ruling circles. There was a fairly strong and active party that opposed the war.
A note is known from one of the major statesmen of that time - P. N. Durnovo, which was filed at the beginning of 1914. Durnovo warned Tsar Nicholas II about the perniciousness of the war, which, in his opinion, meant the death of the dynasty and the death of imperial Russia.
There were such forces, but the fact is that by 1914 Russia was in allied relations not with Germany and Austria-Hungary, but with France, and then with Great Britain, and the very logic of the development of the crisis associated with the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the heir to Austria -Hungarian throne, brought Russia to this war.
Speaking about the possible fall of the monarchy, Durnovo believed that Russia would not be able to withstand a large-scale war, that a supply crisis and a crisis of power would arise, and this would ultimately lead not only to the disorganization of the political and economic life of the country, but also to the collapse of the empire. , loss of control. Unfortunately, his prediction came true in many respects.
- Why did the anti-war arguments, for all their validity, clarity and clarity, not have the proper impact? Russia could not help but enter the war, even despite such clearly expressed arguments of its opponents?
Allied debt on the one hand, on the other hand, the fear of losing prestige and influence in the Balkan countries. After all, if we did not support Serbia, it would be disastrous for Russia's prestige.
Of course, the pressure of certain forces set up for war also had an effect, including those associated with certain Serbian circles at the court, with Montenegrin circles. The well-known "Montenegrins", that is, the spouses of the Grand Dukes at court, also influenced the decision-making process.
It can also be said that Russia owed significant amounts of money received as loans from French, Belgian and English sources. The money was received specifically for the rearmament program.
But the question of prestige (which was very important for Nicholas II) I would still put in the foreground. We must give him his due - he always advocated maintaining the prestige of Russia, although, perhaps, he did not always understand this correctly.
- Is it true that the motive for helping the Orthodox (Orthodox Serbia) was one of the decisive factors that determined Russia's entry into the war?
One of the most important factors. Maybe not decisive, because - I emphasize again - Russia needed to maintain the prestige of a great power and not turn out to be an unreliable ally at the very beginning of the war. This is probably the main motive.
The sister of mercy writes down the last will of the dying. Western front, 1917
WWI became the Patriotic War for our Motherland, the Second Patriotic War, as it is sometimes called. In Soviet textbooks, the WWI was called "imperialist". What is behind these words?
Giving WWI an exclusively imperialist status is a serious mistake, although this moment is also present. But first of all, we must look at it as the Second Patriotic War, bearing in mind that the First Patriotic War was the war against Napoleon in 1812, and we had the Great Patriotic War back in the 20th century.
Taking part in WWI, Russia defended itself. After all, it was Germany that declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914. The First World War became the Second Patriotic War for Russia. In support of the thesis about the main role of Germany in unleashing WWI, one can also say that at the Paris Peace Conference (which was held from 01/18/1919 to 01/21/1920), the Allied Powers, among other requirements, set the condition for Germany to agree with the article on "war crime and acknowledge their responsibility for starting the war.
The whole people then rose up to fight against the foreign invaders. War, I emphasize again, was declared to us. We didn't start it. And not only active armies took part in the war, where, by the way, several million Russians were called up, but the whole people. The rear and the front acted together. And many of the trends that we later observed during the Great Patriotic War originate precisely in the period of WWI. Suffice it to say that partisan detachments were active, that the population of the rear provinces actively showed itself when they helped not only the wounded, but also refugees from the western provinces fleeing the war. The sisters of mercy were active, the clergy who were at the forefront and often raised troops on the attack showed themselves very well.
It can be said that the designation of our great defensive wars by the terms: “First Patriotic War”, “Second Patriotic War” and “Third Patriotic War” is the restoration of that historical continuity that was broken in the period after WWI.
In other words, whatever the official goals of the war, there were ordinary people who perceived this war as a war for their Fatherland, and died and suffered precisely for this.
- And what, from your point of view, are the most common myths about WWI now?
We have already named the first myth. It is a myth that the WWI was unequivocally imperialistic and was conducted solely in the interests of the ruling circles. This is probably the most common myth that has not yet been eliminated even on the pages of school textbooks. But historians are trying to overcome this negative ideological legacy. We are trying to take a different look at the history of WWI and explain to our students the true essence of that war.
Another myth is the idea that the Russian army only retreated and suffered defeat. Nothing like this. By the way, this myth is widespread in the West, where, in addition to the Brusilov breakthrough, that is, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front in 1916 (spring-summer), even Western experts, not to mention the general public, no major victories of Russian weapons in WWI they cannot name.
In fact, excellent examples of Russian military art were demonstrated in WWI. Say, on the Southwestern Front, on the Western Front. This is the Battle of Galicia, and the Lodz operation. One defense of Osovets is worth something. Osowiec is a fortress located on the territory of modern Poland, where the Russians defended themselves from superior German forces for more than six months (the siege of the fortress began in January 1915 and lasted 190 days). And this defense is quite comparable with the defense of the Brest Fortress.
You can give examples with Russian pilots-heroes. One can recall the sisters of mercy who saved the wounded. There are many such examples.
There is also a myth that Russia fought this war in isolation from its allies. Nothing like this. The examples I gave earlier debunk this myth.
The war was coalition. And we received significant assistance from France, Great Britain, and then the United States, which entered the war later, in 1917.
- Is the figure of Nicholas II mythologized?
In many ways, of course, mythologized. Under the influence of revolutionary agitation, he was branded almost as an accomplice of the Germans. There was a myth according to which Nicholas II allegedly wanted to conclude a separate peace with Germany.
Actually, it wasn't. He was a sincere supporter of waging war to a victorious end and did everything in his power for this. Already in exile, he extremely painfully and with great indignation took the news that the Bolsheviks had concluded a separate Brest Peace.
Another thing is that the scale of his personality as a statesman was not quite adequate for Russia to be able to go through this war to the end.
None I emphasize , none documentary evidence of the desire of the emperor and empress to conclude a separate peace not found. He didn't even think about it. These documents do not exist and could not exist. This is another myth.
As a very vivid illustration of this thesis, one can cite Nicholas II’s own words from the Act of Abdication (March 2 (15), 1917 at 15:00): "In the days of the greatstruggle with an external enemy who has been striving to enslave our homeland for almost three years, the Lord God was pleased to send Russia a new ordeal. The outbreak of internal popular unrest threatens to have a disastrous effect on the further conduct of the stubborn war.The fate of Russia, the honor of our heroic army, the good of the people, the whole future of our dear Fatherland demand that the war be brought to a victorious end at all costs. <...>».
Nicholas II, V. B. Frederiks and Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich at Headquarters. 1914
Russian troops on the march. Photo 1915
The First World War - is, as some believe, a shameful defeat of the tsarist regime, a catastrophe or something else? After all, as long as the last Russian tsar remained in power, the enemy could not enter the Russian Empire? Unlike the Great Patriotic War.
You are not quite right that the enemy could not enter our borders. He nevertheless entered the Russian Empire as a result of the offensive of 1915, when the Russian army was forced to retreat, when our opponents transferred virtually all their forces to the Eastern Front, to the Russian front, and our troops had to retreat. Although, of course, the enemy did not enter the deep regions of Central Russia.
But I would not call what happened in 1917-1918 a defeat, a shameful defeat of the Russian Empire. It would be more correct to say that Russia was forced to sign this separate peace with the Central Powers, that is, with Austria-Hungary and Germany and with other members of this coalition.
This is a consequence of the political crisis in which Russia found itself. That is, the reasons for this are internal, and by no means military. And we must not forget that the Russians actively fought on the Caucasian front, and the successes were very significant. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was dealt a very serious blow by Russia, which later led to its defeat.
Although Russia has not fully fulfilled its allied duty, it must be admitted, it certainly made its significant contribution to the victory of the Entente.
Russia lacked literally a year of some kind. Maybe a year and a half in order to adequately end this war as part of the Entente, as part of a coalition
And how was the war generally perceived in Russian society? The Bolsheviks, representing an overwhelming minority of the population, dreamed of the defeat of Russia. But what was the attitude of ordinary people?
The general mood was quite patriotic. For example, women of the Russian Empire were most actively involved in charitable assistance. A lot of people signed up as sisters of mercy, even without being professionally trained. They took special short courses. A lot of girls and young women from different classes participated in this movement - from members of the imperial family to the most ordinary people. There were special delegations of the Russian Red Cross Society who visited POW camps and observed their content. And not only in Russia, but also abroad. Traveled to Germany, Austria-Hungary. Even in war conditions, this was feasible through the mediation of the international Red Cross. We traveled through third countries, mainly through Sweden and Denmark. During the Great Patriotic War, such work, unfortunately, was impossible.
By 1916, medical and social assistance to the wounded was systematized and took on a purposeful character, although initially, of course, much was done on a private initiative. This movement to help the army, to help those who were in the rear, the wounded, had a nationwide character.
Members royal family also took an active part in it. They collected parcels for prisoners of war, donations in favor of the wounded. A hospital was opened in the Winter Palace.
By the way, one cannot but mention the role of the Church. She provided great assistance both to the army in the field and in the rear. The activities of regimental priests at the front were very versatile.
In addition to their immediate duties, they were also involved in compiling and sending "funerals" (death notices) to relatives and friends of the fallen soldiers. Many cases have been recorded when priests walked at the head or in the forefront of the advancing troops.
The priests had to do the work, as they would say now, of psychotherapists: they conducted conversations, calmed them down, tried to remove the feeling of fear that is natural for a person in the trenches. It's at the front.
In the rear, the Church provided assistance to the wounded and refugees. Many monasteries set up free hospitals, collected parcels for the front, and organized the dispatch of charitable aid.
Russian infantry. 1914
Is it possible, given the current ideological chaos in society, including in the perception of WWI, to present a sufficiently clear and precise position on WWI that would reconcile everyone in relation to this historical phenomenon?
We, professional historians, are just now working on this, striving to create such a concept. But this is not easy to do.
In fact, we are now making up for what Western historians did back in the 50s and 60s of the 20th century - we are doing work that, due to the peculiarities of our history, we did not do. The whole emphasis was on the October Socialist Revolution. The history of WWI was hushed up and mythologized.
Is it true that the construction of a temple in memory of the soldiers who died in WWI is already planned, just as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was built at one time with public money?
Yes. This idea is being worked on. And there is even a unique place in Moscow - a fraternal cemetery near the Sokol metro station, where not only Russian soldiers who died here in the rear hospitals, but also prisoners of war of the enemy armies were buried. That is why it is fraternal. Soldiers and officers of different nationalities are buried there.
At one time, this cemetery occupied a fairly large space. Now, of course, the situation is completely different. Much has been lost there, but the memorial park has been recreated, there is already a chapel, and restoring the temple there would probably be a very correct decision. Just like opening a museum (with a museum, the situation is more complicated).
You can announce a fundraiser for this temple. The role of the Church is very important here.
In fact, we can put an Orthodox church at the crossroads of these historical roads, just as we used to put chapels at the crossroads, where people could come, pray, and remember their dead relatives.
Yes, absolutely right. Moreover, almost every family in Russia is associated with WWI, that is, with the Second Patriotic War, as well as with the Great Patriotic War.
Many fought, many ancestors somehow took part in this war - either in the rear, or in the army. Therefore, it is our sacred duty to restore the historical truth.
