Labor activity- performance for pay of work in a certain specialty, qualification or position in accordance with labor legislation, as well as other income-generating activities carried out by an individual ... Source: LAW of Moscow from ... ... Official terminology
Labor activity- see Labor ... Russian encyclopedia of labor protection
Labor activity- the process of the deliberate manufacture of tools and other artifacts (sometimes it is emphasized that other deliberately made tools are used in this process). Characteristic primarily for humans (species-specific property) ... Physical Anthropology. Illustrated explanatory dictionary.
WORK ACTIVITIES- represents the unity of external easily distinguishable elements (substantially effective aspect): organized workplace, tools, actions, sequence of operations, etc. and internal open elements (psychological aspect): ... ... Dictionary of career guidance and psychological support
The work of a foreign citizen in the Russian Federation on the basis of an employment contract or a civil law contract for the performance of work (provision of services); ... Source: Federal Law of 07/25/2002 N 115 FZ (as amended on 11/12/2012) On the legal ... ... Official terminology
WORK OF A FOREIGN CITIZEN- work of a foreign citizen in the Russian Federation on the basis of an employment contract or a civil law contract for the performance of work (provision of services) ... Legal Encyclopedia
Labor activity of a foreign citizen- Work of a foreign citizen in the Russian Federation on the basis of an employment contract or a civil law contract for the performance of work (provision of services); Art. 2 of the federal law of July 25, 2002 No. 115 FZ On the legal status of foreign ... ... Dictionary: accounting, taxes, business law
INDIVIDUAL WORK ACTIVITIES- (ITD) socially useful independent personal activity of citizens, carried out in order to ensure employment, obtain additional income, and more fully meet the needs of the population in goods and services. The term individual ... ... Economic Dictionary
Self-employment- socially useful activity individuals for the production of goods and services, not related to their labor relations with enterprises of any type. In English: Individual labor activities See also: Types of business activities ... ... Financial dictionary
FOREIGN CITIZEN WORK ACTIVITIES- WORK OF A FOREIGN CITIZEN ... Legal Encyclopedia
Labor activity is a multifaceted phenomenon. Various aspects of labor have become the subject of study in several social sciences.
From point of view economics labor is seen as a planned, conscious activity with the aim of processing what nature gives into commodities. Economics studies labor as one of the factors of production, explores the mechanism of action of economic laws in the sphere of labor, labor costs at all stages of the production cycle, the ratio of wages to its results. Psychology studies the psyche of the worker, distinctive features personalities of employees, formation of labor attitudes and behavioral motives, psychophysiological characteristics of various types of labor activity. legal scholars study problems related to the legal status of employees, the legal registration of labor relations between employees and employers, and labor protection. Sociology considers labor activity as an expedient series of operations and functions, relatively rigidly fixed in time and space, performed by people united in production organizations. The sociology of labor studies the structure and mechanism of social and labor relations, as well as social processes in the sphere of labor. Philosophy comprehends labor as a process of creating conditions and means of existence by people, in which human strengths, skills, and knowledge are embodied. For philosophy, it is important to determine how a person manifests himself in this process, who realizes himself in work.
The sciences that study labor are in many cases closely related and often intersect. Comprehensive knowledge about such a phenomenon as labor can only be given by its comprehensive studies, in which the efforts of various sciences are combined. The content of this paragraph integrates some of the results of the study of labor activity by the social sciences, primarily sociology.
LABOR AS A KIND OF HUMAN ACTIVITY
The needs and interests of people are the basis that predetermines the purpose of labor activity. Labor in the proper sense of the word arises when human activity becomes meaningful, when a consciously set goal is realized in it - the creation of material and spiritual values \u200b\u200bnecessary for people's lives. In this, labor activity differs from educational activity, aimed at acquiring knowledge and mastering skills, and gaming activity, in which it is not so much the result that is important, but the process of the game itself.
Sociologists characterize labor activity, regardless of the method, means and results, next to general properties.
Firstly, a set of labor operations, prescribed for performance in certain workplaces. In each specific type of labor activity, labor operations are performed, which include various labor techniques, actions and movements. (What types of labor are you familiar with? What operations and techniques are used in them?) As a result of the introduction of new technology and modern technologies the content of the labor process changes the ratio between physical and mental labor, monotonous and creative, manual and mechanized, etc.
Secondly, labor activity is characterized by a set of relevant qualities of subjects of labor activity, fixed in professional, qualification and job characteristics. Recall that qualification should not be equated with professionalism. It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for effective work. To become a professional, a person needs to gain experience, he must be characterized by commitment, self-discipline, business honesty, responsibility.
Thirdly, labor activity is characterized material and technical working conditions. To achieve the goal in labor activity, as in any other, various means are used. First of all, these are various technical devices necessary for production, energy and transport lines and other material objects, without which the labor process is impossible. All of them together make means of labor. During the production process, the impact on object of labor i.e. the materials being converted. To do this, various methods are used, which are called technologies. For example, you can remove excess metal from a workpiece using metal-cutting equipment, but the use of an electric pulse method allows you to achieve a similar result 10 times faster. This means that 10 times more labor productivity.(Think about what determines labor productivity and whether it is always associated only with the desire of a person.)
The modern technical base of enterprises is a complex combination of different types of labor tools, so there is a significant differentiation in the level of technical equipment of labor. This entails its significant heterogeneity. A large number of workers are engaged in monotonous, uncreative work. At the same time, many perform work that requires active mental activity, solving complex production problems.
Fourthly, labor activity is characterized by the method of organizational, technological and economic connection of labor subjects with the means and conditions for their use. The most important feature of the labor activity of people is that it requires, as a rule, joint efforts to achieve the set goals. However, collective activity does not mean that all members of the team that creates any product do the same work. On the contrary, there is a need division of labor thereby increasing its efficiency.
Obviously, the work of an entrepreneur, characterized by a high degree of independence and financial responsibility for his decisions, differs from the nature of the work of an employee who, under the terms of a labor agreement, is obliged to follow the orders of production managers. (Think about what characterizes self-employment from this perspective.)
Fifth, labor activity is characterized by the structure of organization and management of the labor process, norms and algorithms that determine the behavior of its participants. In particular, the notion disciplines. Normal labor activity is impossible without the voluntary, conscious observance by each employee of the rules and procedures of behavior in the team, which are mandatory for all its members. Labor laws and internal labor regulations require the productive use of working time, the conscientious performance of one's duties, and the high quality of work. The fulfillment of these requirements is labor discipline.
Modern production requires compliance with a certain technological regime (material processing methods, speed, temperature, pressure, etc.), which ensures the achievement of the production goal, i.e., obtaining a product with specified quality indicators. Everyone knows that if, for example, the strength of the fire in the stove is not adjusted, the product in the pan may not fry, but burn out. Strict adherence to technological standards is called technological discipline.
When enterprises are interconnected by an agreement that determines, for example, the supply of raw materials, semi-finished products, parts, assemblies for the production of a finished product, strict adherence to the terms of the agreement is called contract discipline. Its non-compliance causes a violation of the labor rhythm of the enterprise, failures in the well-functioning production activities of many people.
Fulfillment of rules, norms, contracts, orders, orders of production managers is also called diligence. But performance is impossible without initiative. In fact, having received an order, a person should think about how best to carry it out. It is impossible to foresee all the situations that arise in the labor process in the rules, orders, instructions. The employee must, under specific conditions, find the optimal solution that allows him to fulfill the order given to him in a quality and timely manner. Initiative and diligence are interconnected. A thoughtless performer is a bad worker. On the contrary, the initiative is evidence of high professionalism.
In sociology, labor is considered using the concepts of “content of labor” and “character of labor”. Content of labor depends on the characteristics of a particular type of labor, due to the subject of labor, means of labor, the totality of operations performed by the employee, their correlation and interconnection; from the ratio of executive and managerial functions, as well as the functions of control, monitoring and adjustment of equipment; on the degree of predetermination of actions, independence, the level of creative possibilities, etc. A change in the composition of the necessary operations and the ratio of labor functions means a change in the content of labor. The main factor behind this change is scientific and technological progress.
Modern technological processes presuppose the maximum intellectualization of labor (imagine the labor of a nuclear power plant operator or a pilot of a modern airliner), such an organization that a person is not reduced to a simple performer of individual operations. In other words, we are talking about changing the content of labor, which at the present stage of scientific and technological progress can become more diverse, more creative.
The nature of labor represents the relationship between the participants in the labor process, affecting the attitude of workers to work and its productivity.
Of great importance are working conditions. They include the degree of danger or safety of the subject and means of labor, their impact on health, mood and human performance. Potentially dangerous factors are physical (noise, vibration, increase or decrease in temperature, ionizing and other radiation), chemical (gases, vapors, aerosols), biological (viruses, bacteria, fungi).
Particularly harmful, extreme working conditions (for example, coal mining in mines) are dangerous with the possibility of serious occupational diseases, serious injuries, major accidents, accompanied by death of people.
Plays a big role work culture. Researchers identify three components in it. Firstly, it is the improvement of the working environment, i.e., the conditions in which the labor process takes place. Secondly, it is the culture of relationships between labor participants, the creation of a favorable moral and psychological climate in the work collective. Thirdly, the comprehension by the participants of labor activity of the content of the labor process, its features, as well as the creative embodiment of the engineering concept embedded in it.
Labor activity is the most important field of self-realization in the life of any person. It is here that a person's abilities are revealed and improved, it is in this area that he can assert himself as a person.
HUMAN FACTOR OF PRODUCTION
The human factor is the broadest designation of the totality of the employee's properties (qualifications, behavioral motives, interests, consciousness, culture, etc.). It is used in comparison with technical and economic factors. Close to the concepts of "staff", "labor force", "employee", etc.
Scientific and technological progress radically changes the position of a person (the subject of labor) in the production system: he is removed from the immediate process of creating a finished product, stands next to him and acts in relation to him as a controller, adjuster, adjuster. Even earlier, a person transferred to the machine first an executive function (impact with a tool on an object of labor), and then a motor, energy one. Now, along with the reduction of direct human participation in production, there is an expansion of indirect types of labor associated with the performance of control, management and logical functions of an ever higher level, with the adoption of responsible decisions.
Scientific and technological progress causes a change in the role of a person in the production process, affects the content of his labor activity.
Significantly changing the ratio between physical and mental labor, physical and intellectual abilities. If earlier the worker realized in the process of labor mainly physical abilities (endurance, muscular strength, professional training), then the creation of machines that perform logical operations, mathematical calculations, etc., highlights such human abilities as the ability to analyze the situation, compare data, set goals, etc. It is difficult to establish a clear boundary between mental and physical labor. Computer repair is associated with both manual (physical) and mental labor. Is it possible to separate two types of labor, for example, in the activities of a surgeon?
However, both in our country and throughout the world, the scientific and technological revolution entails the strengthening of the mental functions of labor. At the same time, creativity increases - the ability to assess the situation and make independent decisions.
The latest technology and technology stimulate the development of human abilities and at the same time place high demands on the personality of the worker. The result of the error of the worker-machine operator could be one damaged part. Automatic line operator errors result in hundreds of defective parts. The mistakes of the nuclear power plant operator or the mistakes of the pilot of an airliner can turn into grave consequences. It would seem that the work comes down to monitoring devices and pressing buttons, but in reality, emotional stress and mental stress increase, the role of such moral character personality, as a sense of responsibility, self-discipline, self-control.
Thus, along with the transformation of the technical factor of production, the role of the human factor is significantly increasing. This should be taken into account by the creators of highly complex engineering systems that include a person. Since human behavior in sociotechnical systems can be a risk factor, it is necessary to increase the reliability of an employee in unforeseen situations.
Researchers point to new qualification requirements to modern professions dealing with high-tech equipment. Among these requirements:
- ability to abstract thinking and the ability to freely use the language of computer science;
- the ability to analyze statistical and graphical information, think logically, respond flexibly and quickly to any change in the production situation;
- knowledge of some general education disciplines (mathematics, physics, programming) in a volume exceeding the level of secondary school.
The growth of the information component in labor activity also occurs in connection with the increased rate of aging of information in various spheres of human activity. Hence - the requirement for the worker to be able to continuously update and replenish his knowledge during his working life.
The properties of the human factor in the modern world are changing under the influence of significant changes in the life of society (primarily in connection with the renewal of the material and technical base, and in our country also as a result of the transition to a market economy), as well as with its own development (the growth of education, common culture, quality of life).
Note that in science there is a limitation of the concept " human factor". Man cannot be considered only as a factor of production. Man, his versatile development is an end in itself; his life, rights and freedoms are the highest value.
SOCIAL PARTNERSHIP
In the process of labor activity, social and labor relations arise between employees, on the one hand, and employers (owners of enterprises, organizations or their representatives), on the other. They can acquire a confrontational character when conflicts arising between the parties are resolved by force (through strikes and lockouts). However, world experience in the second half of the last century showed a different model of relations - social partnership. In the 90s. 20th century this model is also recognized in Russia.
In a broad sense, social partnership is a certain type of social relations between social groups, strata, classes, their public associations, authorities and business, the basis of which is the achievement of agreement on the most important areas of socio-economic and political development. In a narrower sense, it is a system of relations between state authorities, representatives of workers and employers, entrepreneurs, based on equal cooperation. Since in this paragraph we are talking about labor, we will consider social partnership in the second sense.
You know that the interests of employees and employers do not coincide in many ways. Contradictions arise between them, often giving rise to conflicts that can affect any issues of labor activity: its regulation and payment, working hours and labor protection, social guarantees and the right to association. The mechanism of social partnership makes it possible to decide contentious issues not on the basis of confrontation, but through negotiations, through coordination of interests, on the basis of a reasonable compromise.
Sociologists note the following distinctive features of social partnership:
- participation of employees in the management of enterprises in various organizational forms, including trade unions;
- the negotiation nature of the settlement of disagreements and contradictions arising between the parties (subjects of labor relations);
- availability of mechanisms and legal institutions to coordinate the interests of partners at different levels;
- coordination between partners at the highest (national) level of income sharing and socio-economic policy in general, including the development of basic criteria and indicators of social justice and measures to protect the subjects of labor relations;
- reduction and mitigation of labor conflicts in the form of strikes and lockouts.
In Russia, social partnership in the sphere of labor is currently regulated by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, the laws of the Russian Federation “On trade unions, their rights and guarantees of activity” (1996), “On the Russian tripartite commission for the regulation of social and labor relations” (1999) .
There are several forms of social partnership. One of them are collective bargaining on the preparation of draft collective agreements and their conclusion. Such contracts are legal acts that regulate social and labor relations in an organization. They are prepared and concluded on behalf of employees and employers by their representatives. The contract may include mutual obligations of the parties on such issues as forms, systems and amounts of remuneration; working time and rest time; improvement of working conditions and labor protection of employees; environmental safety, health protection of workers at work; guarantees and benefits for employees who combine work with education, etc.
The forms of social partnership also include the participation of employees and their representatives in the management of the organization. Among the forms of such participation is obtaining information from the employer on issues that directly affect the interests of employees; discussion with the employer of questions about the work of the organization, making proposals for its improvement; participation in the development, adoption of collective agreements, etc.
The participation of employees' representatives in the pre-trial resolution of individual labor disputes is also a form of social partnership. For this purpose, commissions on labor disputes are created from representatives of employees and employers.
Analyzing the process of establishing social partnership in Russia, the experts noted that it was not going smoothly. Difficulties along this path are explained by the too large gap in the incomes of various groups of the population and the socio-psychological unpreparedness to accept the idea of social partnership, the insufficient development of civil society, the non-compliance of some business representatives with the civilized “rules of the game”, the disunity of trade unions, and the imperfect system of power. Meanwhile, mutual coherence, taking into account the interests of various social groups are a necessary condition for the development of the economy, the formation of civil society, the creation of a strong state. The interconnection of all these tasks determines the prospects for the development of social partnership in our country.
Basic concepts: labor, sociology of labor, social partnership.
Terms: content of labor, working conditions, labor discipline, labor culture, human factor of production.
1. What profession are you more familiar with? Carry out an analysis of this professional work: determine its purpose, the technical means used, the methods of labor activity (technology), labor operations and techniques. Think about how you can improve the productivity of this work activity. Compare the labor content of a grocery store clerk and a bus driver.
2. The German poet and scientist J. W. Goethe wrote: “Every life, every activity, every art must be preceded by a craft, which can be mastered only with a certain specialization. Acquisition complete knowledge full skill in the field of any one subject gives a greater education than the assimilation of half a hundred different subjects. Do you agree with this statement? Justify your answer.
3. In the developed countries of the world that have entered into Information society, categories of workers with a significant information component in their activities in the 90s. 20th century accounted for 40 to 50% of those employed in the national economy. And along with professions that require creative work to some extent, their share has reached 70-80% of all employed. Draw conclusions from these data.
4. In the literature of Western countries, forecasts about the negative consequences of informatization of production have also appeared. Among them: the disappearance of numerous professions, dequalification, dehumanization of labor, new requirements for the mobility of workers, stress. Based on the knowledge gained at school and from other sources, express your attitude to these forecasts. Justify your answer.
5. The idea of social partnership was born as a counterbalance to the theory of class struggle. Discuss: which of these two approaches to social relations in modern conditions is most consistent with the interests of society, the state and various social groups?
| Work with the source |
Check out an excerpt from A. I. Kravchenko's book "Sociology: A Reference Guide".
Almost everyone works to secure and improve their lives. The work uses mental and physical abilities. Today, in the modern world, work activity is more extensive than it was before. How is the process and organization of work? What types are there? Why does a person refuse to work? Read more for answers...
Work is mental and physical effort applied to achieve a certain result. A person uses his abilities for consistent work and its conclusion. Human work is aimed at:
1. Raw materials (a person works with them to bring them to the final result).
2. Means of labor are transport, household equipment, tools and equipment (with their help, a person makes any product).
3. The cost of living labor, which is the salary of all personnel in production.
A person's work activity can be both complex and simple. For example, one plans and controls the entire work process - this is mental capacity. There are workers who write down the indicators on the counter every hour - this is physical work. However, it is not as difficult as the first one.
Labor efficiency will be improved only when a person has certain work skills. Therefore, they accept people for production not those who have just graduated from a university, but those who have experience and skill.
Why are we working? Why does a person need a job? Everything is very simple. To fulfill human needs. Most people think so, but not all.
There are people for whom work is self-realization. Often such work brings a minimum income, but thanks to it, a person does what he loves and develops. When people do things that they like, then the work is better. Career also refers to self-realization.
A woman who is completely dependent on her husband goes to work only in order not to degrade. Home life often “eats up” a person so much that you start to lose yourself. As a result, from an interesting and intelligent personality, you can turn into a home "hen". Surrounding such a person becomes uninteresting.
It turns out that the labor activity of the employee is the essence of the personality. Therefore, you need to evaluate your abilities and choose the work that not only brings income, but also pleasure.
As mentioned earlier, a person applies mental or physical abilities for work. About 10 types of labor activity were counted. All of them are varied.
Types of labor activity:
Physical labor includes:
Types of mental work include:
Physical work is the performance of labor with the use of muscle activity. They may be partially or completely involved. For example, a builder who carries a bag of cement (the muscles of the legs, arms, back, torso, etc. work). Or the operator records the readings in the document. The muscles of the hands and mental activity are involved here.
Mental work - reception, use, processing of information. This work requires attentiveness, memory, thinking.
Today, only mental or physical labor is a rarity. For example, they hired a builder to renovate the office. He will not only make repairs, but also calculate how much material is needed, what is its cost, how much work costs, etc. Both mental and physical abilities are involved. And so it is with every job. Even if a person works on a conveyor. This work is monotonous, the production is the same every day. If a person does not think, then he will not be able to perform right actions. And this can be said about any kind of work activity.
What motivates a person to do a certain job? Of course, this is the financial side. The higher the salary, the better a person tries to do his job. He understands that a poorly done task is worse paid.
Motivation of labor activity is not only in monetary terms, there are also intangible aspects. For example, many people will be happy to work if you create a friendly atmosphere for them in the team. Frequent staff turnover at work cannot create warmth among employees.
Some workers need social needs. That is, it is important for them to feel the support of leaders and colleagues.
There is a type of people who need attention and praise. They should feel that their work is in demand and they are not in vain putting their efforts into work.
Certain employees want to fulfill themselves through work. They are ready to work tirelessly, the main thing for them is to give impetus.
Therefore, it is necessary to find the right approach to each employee so that they have a motivation for work. Only then will the work be done quickly and efficiently. After all, every person needs to be encouraged to work.
At each production or enterprise, a certain system has been established, according to which the labor activity of a person is calculated. This is done so that the work does not go astray. The organization of labor activity is planned, then fixed in certain documents (schemes, instructions, etc.).
The work planning system specifies:
In order to have high productivity in the enterprise, it is necessary to adhere to a planned organization of work.
Each work is done with the help of a person. This is the labor process. It is divided into types:
The last option is:
People work in different fields. Working conditions are a number of factors that surround a person's workplace. They affect his work and health. They are divided into 4 types:
For optimal conditions, the employee must breathe clean air, the humidity of the room, the constant movement of air, the temperature in the room should be normal, it is desirable to create natural lighting. If all the norms are not observed, then a person gradually receives harm for his body, which will affect his health over time.
This category is the most important for labor activity. After all, proper work affects the volume and quality of products. The workforce requires professional skills, qualifications and experience. These qualities make it clear what kind of work a person is capable of. Very often, people are not fired at enterprises, but first they are trained, eventually improving their qualifications.
First of all, a person himself must be aware of responsibility in work and approach it qualitatively. If you show your literacy and professionalism, then the management will decide on advanced training and promotion. Thus, the quality of work is improved.
It can be concluded that a person needs to work for several reasons. It is advisable to choose a labor activity according to your abilities and sympathy. Only then will the work be done with dignity and quality. Be sure to pay attention to working conditions. Always remember what your health depends on. In the process of work, be very careful, as work-related injuries are not excluded, which entail not only problems for the employee, but also for the management. For successful, high performance, adhere to all the rules and regulations by which the enterprise operates. Always leave all the problems at home, and go to work with a smile, like on a holiday. If the day starts with a good mood, then it will end the same way.
Educational and labor activity in their developed forms develops beyond preschool age. Educational activity is the leading activity for school-age children (as well as for adults, if they continue their education off-duty). Labor is the main activity of adults. Each of these activities has a complex structure and makes high demands on the human psyche. For their successful implementation required mental properties
and abilities that a child of preschool age has still formed.
Preparation for systematic learning and for subsequent participation in productive work is one of the main tasks of educating and educating preschool children. This training is carried out mainly in the game and productive activities. However, along with this, adults put before the children tasks of a purely educational and labor nature, gradually ensuring that the children, performing such tasks, also learn certain mental actions necessary for educational and labor activities.
When evaluating the development of the elements of learning and labor in preschool childhood, it is necessary not to lose sight of the fact that the meaning of activity for the adult who organizes it and for the child in very many cases turns out to be different. The fact that a child acquires certain knowledge and skills in the process of learning, performs the duties of a duty officer or plants flowers, does not yet give grounds for the conclusion that he has developed (even in elementary forms) educational and labor activity. Up to a certain point, children are guided by interest in themselves. process actions, the desire to be like adults, to earn the approval of an adult, not realizing the value that the knowledge gained or the results of their work assignments have. And such awareness is a necessary condition for systematic study and work. The conscious fulfillment of educational and labor actions only begins to take shape at preschool age.
Appearancetraininginterestsandassimilationtrainingaction. Mainpeculiarityeducationalactivitiesthat, whatherpurpose- assimilationnewknowledge, skillsandskills, anotreceivingexternal result.
If a child draws, being carried away by the process of drawing or trying to get a beautiful drawing, he is busy playing or productive activities. But when in a drawing class he sets himself a special goal - to learn to draw better than before, for example, to learn how to draw straight lines or correctly paint over an image, his actions become educational in nature.
Although the entire mental development of a child is carried out in the process of learning, transferring to him the experience accumulated by previous generations, children learn most of the knowledge and skills by communicating with adults, following their requirements, advice and instructions, as well as in games, drawing, designing, in everyday communication. for a variety of reasons. Education is embedded in various forms of communication between adults and children.
However, as the child develops, it becomes more systematic. In the conditions of public preschool education, children are trained in classes conducted according to a specific program. At the same time, a significant place is occupied by
use of game techniques and productive tasks. At the same time, in the classroom, certain requirements are also being imposed on children regarding the completeness and quality of assimilation of knowledge and skills, the ability to listen and follow the instructions of the educator. Educationon theclassesIt hasimportantmeaningforinitial masteryelementseducationalactivities. Mastering the elements of educational activity includes formationcognitive interestsandassimilationskillsto study.
The various information received by the child about the world around him - what adults show and tell him, what he sees himself - generates curiosity- interest in everything new. The growth of children's curiosity during preschool childhood is manifested, in particular, in an increase in the number and change in the nature of children's questions. If at three or four years only a small part of the questions is aimed at obtaining new knowledge, clarifying the incomprehensible, then by the older preschool age such questions become predominant, and children are often interested in the causes of various phenomena, the connections between them. "Why is it raining?"; Why do plants need to be watered? "Why does the doctor tap out the patient?"; "Where do the stars come from?"; “Can a tractor pull a small house if the house is put on wheels?”; “If all the water flows into the sea, then where does it go?” - here is a small list of common questions of a six-year-old child.
But curiosity does not yet ensure the readiness to learn, to systematically acquire knowledge. Interest in this or that phenomenon quickly arises in a child, but quickly disappears, is replaced by another. Already from the above list of questions it is clear that the child is interested in phenomena related to the most diverse areas of reality. Teaching, in its developed forms, presupposes a steady interest in certain types and aspects of phenomena that make up the content of various academic subjects - mathematics, native language, biology, etc.
In some cases, dissected and stable interests are detected early in preschool children, leading to amazing success in the assimilation of knowledge.
Edik grew up in difficult living conditions. When he was one and a half years old, his father fell seriously ill and has since become an invalid. His mother, who had a technical education, temporarily worked as a school teacher; sometimes students came to her house. At the age of four, listening to his mother's homework, Edik suddenly became interested in learning and began to show extraordinary success (he began to walk and talk at about the same age as other children).
In the fifth year of life, without special guidance from adults, and even against their wishes, the boy learned to read, write and count within a few months. Mastering new skills happened very quickly, rapidly. Edik began to ask him to name the letters and cried if they refused to explain. Having become acquainted with the alphabet, he endlessly uttered the names of the letters, finding them everywhere with satisfaction. Parents did not notice how Edik added syllables - he went through this stage of training so quickly.
No less persistently Edik got acquainted with numbers and arithmetic operations, if he was not told how to count further, he was upset; he experienced genuine suffering if his curiosity was not satisfied.
The rapid progress in the sciences of a sickly child frightened the mother. But the boy was irresistibly drawn to mental food, yearned for no work. The child was more pleased with the knowledge he received than with a treat or a toy.
In the same preschool years, along with mathematics, at one time he studied Russian more intensively, learned declensions and established the cases of words with great interest, even began to write a grammar textbook. Acquaintance with the geographical atlas aroused interest in geography. He quickly mastered geographical concepts and learned hundreds of names. He liked to translate scale values into real ones, to find all the cities located at a certain latitude and longitude. (BymaterialsH. WITH. Leites.)
Of course, children like Edik are an exception. Usually, however, sufficiently stable cognitive interests arise in children only towards the end of preschool age, and only under conditions of well-organized education.
The main role is played by content preschool education.
Studies show that interest in mathematics, language, phenomena of animate and inanimate nature appears to the necessary degree in all children, if in the classroom they are given not separate scattered information, but a certain system knowledge, in which children are exposed to the basic relations of phenomena characteristic of each area of reality. In the field of mathematics, this is the ratio of the measure to the measured, part and whole, units and sets, in the field of language - the ratio of the structure of the word to its meaning, in the field of wildlife - the ratio of the structural features of animals and plants to the conditions of their existence, etc.
When children get acquainted with such general patterns, they follow their manifestation in particular cases with great interest, new aspects of the world around them are revealed to them, and they begin to see that teaching is the path to amazing discoveries.
sustainableanddismemberedcognitiveinterestscreate atchildwishto study, constantlyreceivenewknowledge. The ability to learn involves, first of all, understanding the meaning of the learning task as a task that is performed in order to learn to, the ability to distinguish learning tasks from practical, life situations. It happens that a preschooler, after listening to a mathematical problem, shows interest not in what actions should be performed to solve it, but in the situation described in the conditions of the problem. So, he refuses to solve the problem: “Mom ate four sweets, and gave her son two. How much did they eat { together?”, outraged by the “injustice” described in it: “Why did she give Misha so little?” the child asks. “It needs to be equally divided.” In other cases, the child tries to get an answer as soon as possible and for this he uses at random the actions of addition and subtraction familiar to him. Both are manifestations of the inability to learn. The child must understand that
the situation described in the conditions of the problem is not important in itself, not as a description life chance, but as a material that serves to learn to solve problems in general, and that the point of solving a problem is not to get an answer as soon as possible, but again to learn to, based on the conditions, correctly determine which arithmetic operation needs to be applied, and use this skill in the future.
In the early and middle preschool years, children, as a rule, accept learning tasks only if the knowledge and skills gained in this process can be immediately used in playing, drawing, or in another form of activity that attracts them.
In the conditions of specially organized training at senior preschool age, children develop the ability to accept learning tasks without regard to the possibility of immediate implementation of what they have learned. It becomes possible to assimilate knowledge "for the future", for the future.
Observations show that, throughout preschool childhood, didactic play turns out to be a more effective means of mastering knowledge than the form of direct learning tasks. But if in the younger and middle preschool age the difference is very large, then in the older it is significantly reduced. This is a clear indicator of the growing ability of children to accept learning tasks.
Understanding the meaning of educational tasks leads to the fact that children begin to pay attention to ways performing the actions that an adult gives them, consciously try to master these methods. Preschoolers learn purposeful observation, description, comparison and grouping of objects, coherent transmission of the content of stories and pictures, methods of counting and solving arithmetic problems, etc. The main importance is the correct execution of the task, compliance with the requirements of adults. At the same time, children often turn to an adult, asking them to evaluate the correctness of the fulfillment of certain educational requirements. For example, in the process of teaching older preschoolers to accurately reproduce spatial relationships (when drawing up a pattern according to a model), children repeatedly turned to the teacher: “Look, please, am I doing it right?”; “It is necessary that the corner to the corner and that this triangle be opposite this. Right?"
The assessment given to the work of children by an adult, his comparison of the progress and results of the work of different children leads to the fact that the child himself begins to more correctly control his actions and evaluate his knowledge and skills. Children begin to develop skills self-control and self-esteem in relation to the performance of educational tasks. Often older preschoolers are reluctant to complete tasks that they evaluate as too easy, strive to get those that, from their point of view, are more appropriate.
achieved level of knowledge and skills. Here are the statements of the children when they receive the task of drawing up a pattern according to the model: “Oh, it's easy! It costs nothing for us to do, right, Sasha? "You give me something more difficult, I can do it"; “Oh, how difficult! We've wanted to do this pattern for a long time."
Assessing their knowledge and skills, children often make mistakes. Even greater difficulties are presented for them by self-control in the process of work. But the emergence of self-control and self-esteem is important step in possession learning activities, which ends during the period of schooling.
Masteryinitialformslaboractivities. Laboractivity(meaning productive work) - itactivity, directedon thecreationpublicly usefulproducts- material and spiritual values necessary for mankind. Both in its results and in its organization, labor is public view activities. It, as a rule, takes place in a team and involves the ability to coordinate one's actions with the actions of other participants in labor, together to achieve a common goal. A person must work regardless of what his moods and desires are at the moment. The entire course of labor actions must be subordinated to obtaining the intended result. Therefore, the labor process can be difficult to varying degrees, associated with tension, efforts, overcoming external and internal obstacles.
To participate in each type of labor, certain knowledge, skills and abilities are required that allow a person to obtain a given product.
All these features of labor activity determine the range of requirements for the mental qualities of a person. Conscious participation in productive labor presupposes, first of all, an understanding of the social significance of labor, a desire to perform actions, the result of which is useful to other people. It also requires the ability to work together with others, to work together to obtain a given product. Labor requires a certain level of development of thinking, which allows one to plan one's actions and foresee their results.
Labor makes especially high demands on volitional qualities - the ability to subordinate actions to a specific goal, consciously regulate them, and overcome difficulties that arise.
These mental qualities in their developed form exceed the capabilities of a preschool child. But all of them in one way or another begin to take shape at preschool age. However, just as the assimilation of knowledge and skills occurs in preschool children mainly outside the performance of educational tasks, the formation of the qualities necessary for work occurs in children mainly outside the performance of labor tasks. When are children given
tasks, they are not immediately recognized as labor, different from the game, objective or productive activity.
The initial acquaintance with productive labor occurs in children not when they perform labor tasks, but when they observe the work of adults, through stories, listening to books, looking at pictures. Children reproduce the labor actions and relationships of adults in their games and it is in this way that they get an idea of the necessity of labor, its social significance, and its collective nature. In the game, as we already know, the first forms of distribution and coordination of actions, the skills of their joint implementation are formed.
In productive activities, preschoolers learn to perform actions aimed at obtaining a given result, master the ability to set a specific goal and plan to achieve it. The fulfillment of educational tasks contributes to the development in children of the ability to act in accordance with the system of mandatory requirements, to control and evaluate their work.
All these are necessary components of labor activities, but they are, as it were, scattered over different types of activity. To unite them, to link together an understanding of the social significance of labor, coordination of one's actions with the actions of other people, effectiveness and purposefulness, obedience to mandatory requirements - this means to form in children the initial forms of labor activity. And the way to such an association is the organization of conditions for the performance of labor tasks by children. Work tasks include tasks that involve the achievement of a clearly defined external result that has a certain meaning for other people. Obtaining the result is absolutely necessary and requires a certain amount of effort. Aperformancesuchassignmentsbecomeslabor actiononlyatcondition, whatchildrenrealizesignificance andobligationreceivingthisresult, purposefully striveTohim.
The types of work assignments that are given to children in a kindergarten are quite diverse. This is the fulfillment of various assignments of adults, the duties of a duty officer, caring for indoor plants and animals, working on a kindergarten site, making paper and cardboard crafts (see the second flyleaf, on the right). These tasks acquire for children the meaning of truly labor tasks, they begin to be carried out with the help of labor actions only in cases when the work of children is properly organized and directed by adults. The organization of conditions for the performance of labor tasks includes: 1) teaching children the necessary ways of working, 2) developing their appropriate skills and abilities (in particular, the ability to handle tools and materials), 3) a detailed explanation of the meaning
work, the value that it has for other people (4) helping children in planning and coordinating actions.
Of particular importance are the forms of association of children in the joint performance of labor tasks. It often happens that although several preschoolers or even the entire group of kindergarten participate in the work, each child acts separately and the results obtained by him are considered and evaluated independently of the results achieved by other children. In other cases, each of the children does his work separately, independently of the others, but it is immediately given to the child as part of a common cause, and the results of the work of individual children are evaluated from the point of view of the overall results achieved by the group.
Significantly more effective for the formation of the beginnings of labor activity in children are such forms of their association, when the general task is divided into several interconnected more specific tasks, each of which is performed by one or two or three participants. Here, intermediate results appear, which are transferred from one work participant to another. Until the previous child (or group of children) has completed their part of the overall task, the next one cannot get down to business, and the quality of the work done by one child can be decisive for the quality of the work of another and for the overall result.
So, for example, children wash the cubes. Two wash, one rinse, two dry and one folds. If the first two children do their part of the work poorly, the third will either have to finish for them (and then he will actually rewash the blocks and delay everyone), or leave the blocks dirty. Activities at the next stage will depend on how the children completed the task at the previous stage.
This form of association of children creates the prerequisites for them to realize the joint nature of their actions, to learn to consider individual actions as links in a common cause, to make certain demands on the results of the actions of their peers and on the results of their own actions. Uniting children in work contributes to the fact that they learn to plan better, they develop the ability to divide the entire process of work into a number of successive links. All this gradually turns the fulfillment of labor tasks into a collective labor action. We have seen that for the first time the conditions for uniting children in joint activities are created in play. However, the performance of labor tasks differs significantly from the game - here the nature of the relationship between the participants begins to be regulated by the need to necessarily obtain a given result, a product of a certain quality, i.e., conditions characteristic of labor actions, and not for a game.
Complex forms of association of children in the joint performance of labor tasks and the associated assimilation of initial
forms of labor activity become possible already at the senior preschool age. At the same time, even at this age, the efficiency of performing purely labor tasks is lower than the efficiency of performing the same tasks included in play activities. When children were offered certain tasks directly in the form of labor tasks, and the same tasks were offered during the game in the workshop, where they took on the roles of workers, it was in last case the actions of children were most similar to the real work of adults.
However, it is important not that the labor actions of children give really high results, but that these actions are perceived by children precisely as labor. It is the awareness of labor actions that determines the specifics mental development and prepares children for their future lives as conscientious members of society.
1. General concepts of human labor activity
2. General information about the human body and its interaction with the environment
3.Working conditions
4. Adverse effects of labor impacts on humans
Introduction
The objectives of teaching the discipline are to form students' understanding of the organization and coordination of work on labor protection at the enterprise, subject to the observance of legislative and other regulatory legal acts on labor protection by employees of the enterprise, as well as gaining knowledge on carrying out preventive work to prevent industrial injuries and advising the employer and employees on labor protection issues.
The tasks of studying the discipline:
The study of the relationship between society and man in their relationship with production activities and the environment;
Mastering the organization of labor protection activities at the enterprise;
Understanding the problems of industrial and environmental safety;
Understanding the mechanism of the impact of production on humans and components of the biosphere;
Mastering the methods for determining the normative levels of permissible negative impacts on humans and the natural environment;
Familiarization with legislative and normative-technical acts regulating life safety;
The acquisition by students of the principles of life safety management at the level of the state, region and enterprise.
Intersubject communications
The discipline "Fundamentals of labor safety" is inextricably linked with such disciplines as "Fundamentals of personnel management", "Management", "Labor economics", "Physiology and psychology of labor", "Sociology of labor and social psychology”, “Organizational behavior”, “Organizational culture”, etc.
The discipline "Fundamentals of labor safety" refers to the cycle of special disciplines (SD.03).
Thematic plan
The forms of the final control are a test and an exam, which is conducted both orally and in the form of testing.
1. General concepts of human labor activity
Labor, like any human activity, is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon of the material world, including its social structure, and at the same time a phenomenon of the personal (and hence mental) life of almost everyone.
The basis of everything is simple labor process(it is also called “living labor”, but even more often it is simply called “labor”, which introduces further confusion), carried out by a working person ( subject of labor) by transformation subject of labor via means of labor v product of labor. The simple process of labor vividly personifies the process of transformation of the external world by man.
The variety of types of various labor is inexhaustible, but we will turn to the most common (including so far) types of labor - physical and mental labor.
Physical work - one of the main forms of a simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of physical activity over mental. In physical labor, a person mainly uses his muscle energy and strength to “activate” the means and tools of labor to transform the object of labor into a product of labor and partially “controls” this “action”.
Physical labor may require significant physical effort (for example, when lifting or moving weights) or high tension, when some movement must be performed at a high rhythm, or endurance, when some action must be performed for a long time.
The whole progress of mankind is connected with the "liberation" from physical labor.
In the beginning, all physical labor was manual labor(in modern phraseology - non-mechanized and non-automated).
At mechanized labor(when performing the same overall work), in general, the severity of labor decreases, but for a number of operations, the intensity of work increases, requiring greater attention and coordination of human movements.
Automated labor displaces a person from a simple labor process, leaving behind him the functions of participation in other simple labor processes associated with the development, adjustment, control.
Brainwork - the second of the main forms of a simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of mental (mental) load over purely physical (muscular). In the process of mental labor, a person mainly uses his intellectual capabilities.
Technological progress in automation and informatization of all types of activities inevitably reduces the role of physical labor and increases the role of mental labor. Some problems disappear, others arise. The responsibility of the operator for the timely recognition of signal information and acceptance right decision(for example, a driver, an electric locomotive driver, an aircraft pilot, a nuclear power plant dispatcher, etc.), the speed of changing situations (for example, an airfield dispatcher), the incessant monotony of reproductive labor that requires attention and concentration (a supermarket cashier) and much more put previously non-existent problems of facilitating mental work on the agenda of the XXI century.
The nature of labor changes significantly when several people start working instead of one person. Practitioners are well aware that the organization of labor of one person, or two people, or three or more people are completely different tasks, introducing their own problems into the planned implementation of a simple labor process.
Man is a social being, and labor is the source of all wealth, and therefore labor has a dual character. It is not only a simple process of labor to transform the material world, but also social attitude people involved (directly or indirectly).
social character labor is due to the form of ownership of the means of production and is associated with the right to appropriate the product of labor. On this basis, one distinguishes private labor(owner or tenant) and wage labor. The social nature of labor (as a source of livelihood and wealth) is also manifested in the formation of ways to motivate labor (desire, perceived need, coercion).
Note that hard forms of physical labor (hard labor in quarries, road construction, tunnels, galleys, etc.) were used and are used to punish convicts.
The worldwide and universal division of labor, the unrestrained growth of the scale of modern commodity production led to the dominance of wage labor, often also called professional.
Wage labor is the result of the need to work, realized by the employee, in order not to die of hunger, and at the same time, the employer hiring him realized the need to attract workers to carry out the production process he is implementing in order to receive a profit as a result.
Different kinds specific labor are subdivided depending on their intended purpose, scope of application and functional role in production activities. For the general characteristics of a particular labor, all its possible distinguishing features are used in their combination.
Like any other activity, labor activity contains various dangers, including dangers to the life and health of a person employed in a simple labor process. To protect against them, you need to know and be able to do a lot.
2. General information about the human body and its interaction with the environment
Without knowing “oneself”, one cannot understand how one should protect oneself from the threats of the outside world, and therefore we will allow ourselves to recall some basic data of human anatomy and physiology.
Modern man has gone through a long evolutionary path of adaptation to the environment, and the human body is a single whole, all systems and organs of which develop and function in mutual dependence and conditionality. Although the organism functions as a whole, dividing it into various systems is necessary to understand the functioning of the organism in the external environment, especially if these systems are either anatomically distinct enough, such as the circulatory and digestive systems, or are physiologically functional, such as , systems of thermoregulation and immunity.
The human body is so complex that it is studied by a number of scientific disciplines. We will consider it in a very simplified way and only from the standpoint of ensuring human safety in the labor process.
From these positions in the human body, with a certain degree of conventionality, we can conditionally name:
(1) shaping systems,
(2) life support systems and
(3) control systems.
The shaping systems (1) include the bone and muscle systems, as well as the skin and a number of mucous membranes.
Life support systems (2) should include all systems of exchange with the external environment (respiratory, digestive and excretory systems) and distribution of substances in the body between various organs (cardiovascular system).
The control systems (3) include the autonomic and central nervous systems.
All body systems consist of various organs that are functionally interconnected with each other. Organs are built from various tissues. Tissues consist of cells and intercellular substance in which various biochemical processes take place. Every organ has blood vessels, and most have lymphatics. Nerves approach and branch out to all organs.
Musculoskeletal system forms the musculoskeletal system of a person and ensures the autonomy of the body, the ability to perform various actions and move in space. In addition, bones, muscles and skin provide protection for other, so-called internal organs, from direct exposure to the external environment. In addition to protective functions, the skin is involved in metabolism and thermoregulation.
Heart and blood vessels form a closed system through which blood moves due to contractions of the heart muscle and the walls of blood vessels. Blood vessels are divided into three main types: arteries, capillaries, and veins. Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They branch into vessels of ever smaller diameter, through which blood enters all parts of the body. In the parts of the body farthest from the heart, the blood vessels are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope. It is these microscopic vessels, capillaries, that supply cells with oxygen and nutrients. After their delivery, blood loaded with metabolic end products is sent to the heart through a network of vessels called veins, and from the heart to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs, as a result of which the blood is saturated with oxygen.
Respiratory, digestive and excretory systems serve for the consumption of substances necessary for life from the environment and the removal of metabolic products (biochemical processes of life).
Sweating through the skin plays an important role in maintaining the water-salt and acid-base balance of the body. On average, a person excretes 600 ml of water per day with sweat. With sweat, a huge (about 270) amount of chemicals is excreted.
Anatomically nervous system consists of central and peripheral systems. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system includes cranial and spinal nerves, as well as nerve nodes and plexuses that lie outside the spinal cord and brain.
Incoming sensory information is processed by passing through specific pathways: for example, pain, visual or auditory nerve fibers. Sensitive pathways go in an upward direction to the centers of the brain. The result of the activities of the central nervous system- activity, which is based on the contraction or relaxation of muscles or the secretion or cessation of secretion of glands.
The autonomic, or autonomic, nervous system regulates the activity of the involuntary muscles, the heart muscle, and various glands. Its structures are located both in the central nervous system and in the peripheral.
The activity of the autonomic nervous system is aimed at maintaining a relatively stable state of the internal environment of the body: a constant body temperature or blood pressure that meets the needs of the body. The autonomic nervous system is divided into
Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic.
The sympathetic system stimulates those processes that are aimed at mobilizing the body's forces in extreme situations or under stress. The parasympathetic system contributes to the accumulation or restoration of the body's energy resources.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems act in a coordinated manner and cannot be seen as antagonistic. Together they support the functioning of internal organs and tissues at a level corresponding to the intensity of stress and the emotional state of a person. Both systems function continuously, but their activity levels fluctuate depending on the situation.
Endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that do not have excretory ducts. They produce chemicals called hormones that enter directly into the blood and have a regulatory effect on organs distant from their respective glands.
central nervous system regulates the activity of all organs, systems and the whole organism as a whole and is a collection of nerve cells and processes extending from them. In this set of cell bodies located in the cranium (brain) and spinal canal (spinal cord), information is processed that comes to them through sensory nerves and comes from them to the executive organs through motor (to muscles) and autonomic (to internal organs) nerves. All nerves and their branches form the peripheral nervous system.
The central nervous system organizes the processes of vital activity in accordance with the conditions of the external environment, changing the functioning of the work of individual organs and systems. At the same time, the functioning of all systems is closely intertwined. For example, in the process of transporting substances by the blood circulation, in addition to the cardiovascular system, the urinary system also participates, since the blood flow passes through the kidneys, and the respiratory system, since the blood flow passes through the lungs, and the digestive and hematopoietic systems. The basis of the influence of the digestive system on the cardiovascular system is their close relationship through water-electrolyte metabolism. The musculoskeletal system has a very great influence on the mechanical movement of blood.
To put all systems into operation, the central nervous system (and the person along with it) must have information about the state of the external environment, which is achieved with the help of various analyzers and receptors of the so-called sense organs.
Any analyzer consists of a receptor, nerve pathways and a brain end. Some of the receptors are adapted to perceive changes in the environment (exteroreceptors), and some - in the internal (interoreceptors). The receptor converts the energy of the stimulus into a nervous process. Pathways transmit nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex. There is a two-way connection between the receptors and the brain end, which ensures the self-regulation of the analyzer.
An exceptional role in a person's life and his relationship with the outside world is played by visual analyzer. With its help, we get the lion's share (about 90%) of information. Through vision, we almost instantly and at considerable distances know the shape, size, color of an object, the direction and distance at which it is located from us. The visual analyzer includes the eye, the optic nerve and the visual center, located in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.
Second in importance after the visual analyzer is auditory. Only it allows us to receive information out of sight, for example, from behind, or in the dark with different distances almost instantly. Differences between the speeds of light and sound are perceptible to us when observing distant thunderstorms, explosions, etc.
Another analyzer - sense of smell also allows you to receive information from great distances, but representatives of the animal world are much better at it than humans. Olfactory receptors are located in the nose and perceive the smallest amount of a substance in the air, which is felt as a smell.
Another analyzer - taste allows you to get information about the quality of food. We sense taste with receptors located on the tongue and oral mucosa.
If a person were a contemplative of nature, then seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting would probably be enough for him. But a person wants to eat and multiply, and for this you need to act (you need to pick up a stick, you need to put your foot on a stone, you need to snuggle up to your own kind).
And none of this would have been possible if not for touch. Under the sense of touch we understand the sensations arising from the direct impact of the stimulus on the surface of the skin. The skin is literally stuffed with receptors of various analyzers.
Tactile Analyzer perceives touch and pressure on skin receptors.
The temperature sensitivity of the skin is provided by two types of receptors - cold and heat.
The spatial distribution of pain receptors is interesting. There are many of them where there are few tactile receptors, and vice versa. Pain receptors cause a withdrawal reflex from the stimulus, because a painful stimulus is a danger. Under the influence of pain, the body quickly mobilizes to fight the danger, the work of all body systems is rebuilt.
The analyzers discussed above are so important and have long been known to man that he called them sense organs:
smell,
touch and
But besides them, a person has other analyzers and receptors.
The human brain receives information not only from the environment, but also from the body. Sensitive nervous apparatuses are present in all internal organs. In the internal organs, under the influence of external conditions, certain sensations arise that generate signals. These signals are a necessary condition for the regulation of the activity of internal organs.
Important analyzers are proprioceptors, which allow you to feel muscle tension and the spatial arrangement of the body and limbs.
Despite the difference in diverse receptors and analyzers, their functioning has much in common, since they all developed in the process of evolution to protect against dangers.
In the real conditions of terrestrial habitation, a person is affected by a lot of very different, often weak, irritants. In the course of evolution, a person has developed the ability to perceive only those stimuli, the intensity of which reaches a certain certain value. Such a minimum adequately perceived value is usually called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity or the threshold of perception. At the same time, perception always lags behind the onset of the stimulus for some time, called latent (latent) period.
Above the threshold of perception, the intensity of sensations slowly increases with increasing intensity of the stimulus, and their relationship can be approximately expressed by the Weber-Fechner logarithmic law. Such a connection between the stimulus and sensation is not accidental, since it allows us to reduce a very wide range of stimuli to a much narrower range of sensations, and the greatest values of the stimulus undergo the greatest transformation.
High values of the stimulus are rare in nature and, as a rule, are associated with a danger, about the occurrence of which the organism must be “warned”. Therefore, with an increase in the intensity of the stimulus, there always comes a moment when the sensation is replaced by a special signal of danger - pain, from which the body wants only one thing - to get rid of, and, getting rid of it, saves itself from danger. This maximum adequately perceived value of the stimulus is called upper absolute threshold of sensitivity or pain threshold.
The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately felt value (from the perception threshold to the pain threshold) determines analyzer sensitivity range.
Within its sensitivity range, the analyzer may cease to distinguish between two different, but close in intensity, stimuli. To assess this ability of the analyzer, one speaks of differential threshold(or the threshold of discrimination), which is understood as the minimum difference between the intensities of two stimuli, which causes a barely noticeable difference in sensations.
Like everything in the living world, threshold values are not strictly stable. They depend on many factors, often difficult to take into account. Therefore, all thresholds should be considered as statistical averages.
In real conditions of activity, several stimuli simultaneously act on each analyzer of a person. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account not only the capabilities of the analyzer, but also the conditions in which a person will work. Therefore, when determining the optimal conditions for functioning, it is necessary to take into account the entire system of stimuli acting on all human analyzers.
We emphasize that the division of the entire set of analyzers into separate systems is rather conditional. These systems clearly differ only in their receptors. In the vast majority of cases, a change in the nature of the organism's vital activity in response to a change in environmental conditions occurs with the participation of several analyzers, and then it is practically impossible to draw a clear line between them. For example, the vestibular apparatus, gravireceptors and proprioreceptors of muscles, tactile receptors of the skin, receptors of the organ of vision take part in the regulation of posture. In addition, in this case, all analyzer systems have the same actuator - the musculoskeletal system. It is even more difficult to single out individual analyzers in the case when the choice of reaction to an external disturbance is carried out consciously.
In the course of evolution, a number of specialized systems have developed in the human body, fixed in the anatomical structure and physiological functioning of a person, designed to compensate for adverse changes in external conditions. Any change in environmental conditions automatically generates a corresponding change in the life processes in the body, aimed at ensuring that this external change does not lead to damage and death of the body.
Changes in the internal environment of the organism that occur under the influence of a change in the external environment are directed simultaneously, on the one hand, to adaptation ( adaptation) to new environmental conditions, and, on the other hand, to the preservation of a relatively unchanged state ( homeostasis or homeostasis) the internal environment of the body and its functioning.
Adaptation and homeostasis- interrelated and complementary processes, which are one of the most important features of all living systems. Without exaggeration, we can say that these are the main mechanisms for safe functioning human body determining his health and even life.
V normal conditions in a normally changing external environment, an organism that successfully copes with the need to adapt and maintain homeostasis is healthy body.
When the body turns on the mechanisms of compensatory reactions to maintain homeostasis, we have to talk about the so-called premorbid state - the state pre-illness. In this state, there are still no clinical symptoms of the disease, as modern medicine understands it, but, unfortunately, it is impossible to say that a person is healthy.
When an organism cannot adapt to environmental conditions, it becomes ill and/or dies.
That., human security consists in such regulation of the external environment (working conditions) and the functioning of the internal environment of the employee's body, which, under the influence of this external environment, allows the body to remain within its adaptive capabilities and maintain its health and ability to work.
3.Working conditions
Under working conditions understand the totality of factors of the labor process and the production environment in which human activity is carried out. (Note that in the "Guidelines for the hygienic assessment of factors of the working environment and the labor process. Criteria and classification of working conditions" R 2.2.2006-05, the term "working environment" is replaced by the term "working environment" with the content of the concept unchanged - its meaning.
Under labor process factors(regardless of the environment) understand its main characteristics: burden of labor and labor intensity.
The severity of labor- a characteristic of the labor process, reflecting the load mainly on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, etc.) that ensure its activity.
The severity of labor is determined by the physical dynamic load, the mass of the load being lifted and moved, the total number of stereotypical working movements, the magnitude of the static load, the nature of the working posture, the depth and frequency of the body tilt, and movements in space.
Labor intensity- a characteristic of the labor process, reflecting the load mainly on the central nervous system, sensory organs, and the emotional sphere of the employee.
TO factors characterizing the intensity of labor, relate:
intellectual,
touch,
emotional stress,
The degree of monotony of loads,
Operating mode.
Under production/working environment factors in which human activity is carried out, understand the most diverse factors of this environment, from
physical up to
Socio-psychological.
All these factors affect the human body in one way or another.
Among their diversity, there are such production factors that pose a particular danger (threat) to humans, because they cause significant harm to their health, seriously limiting (up to deprivation) their ability to work.
Factors of the working environment, which, under certain conditions, can cause an employee's work injury, began to be called dangerous production factor, and the factors of the working environment, which, under certain conditions, can cause an occupational disease of an employee, began to be called harmful production factor. The conventions of these names are obvious. It should be noted that a harmful factor easily becomes dangerous under certain conditions.
Since, as practice has shown, the main causes of occupational diseases are high values of harmful production factors and the duration of their impact on the body of the worker, as well as individual characteristics and deviations in the state of health of an individual worker, including those not detected during medical examinations, and low values do not lead to to such diseases, then the assessment of working conditions by the nature of the impact of harmful production factors uses the concept of the so-called threshold impact of factors in the production environment.
Within the framework of this concept, it is believed that below a certain threshold - the maximum permissible value of a harmful production factor for maintaining health - its harmful effect is practically absent and it can be completely (for practical purposes) neglected.
A classic example of the implementation of the concept of the threshold effect of chemicals on a living organism is the concept MPC- the maximum allowable concentration, first proposed in the early 20s of the twentieth century.
The official definition of the MPC of harmful substances in the air of the working area is as follows: “Hygienic standards of working conditions (MPC, MPC) are the levels of harmful factors in the working environment, which, during daily (except weekends) work for 8 hours and no more than 40 hours per week, during the entire working experience should not cause diseases or deviations in the state of health, detectable modern methods research in the process of work or in the remote periods of life of the present and subsequent generations. Compliance with hygienic standards does not exclude a violation of the state of health in persons with hypersensitivity.
The introduction of the MPC, and then the MPC (maximum permissible level) makes it possible in practice to distinguish between safe working conditions, where concentrations are below the MPC (levels below the MPC), and therefore occupational diseases are practically impossible, from adverse conditions labor, where concentrations (levels) are higher than the MPC (MPC) and the occurrence of occupational diseases is much more likely.
Almost all hygienic regulation of harmful production factors and working conditions is based on this principle, and the values of hygienic standards (GN) are obtained and justified for an 8-hour work shift.
It is also important in practice that the cases studied in laboratories of the action of one production factor, for example, one or another xenobiotics(a harmful substance incompatible with life) are relatively rare. Much more often, a worker is affected by a whole complex of various harmful production factors, the totality of all factors of the production environment. At the same time, the result of its impact on the human body also changes.
In the real conditions of modern production, the human body is increasingly exposed to the simultaneous effects of various xenobiotics.
Comprehensive it is customary to call it impact when xenobiotics enter the body simultaneously, but in different ways (through the respiratory tract with inhaled air, the stomach with food and water, skin integuments).
Combined it is customary to call it impact xenobiotics, when xenobiotics simultaneously or sequentially enter the body in the same way. There are several types of combined action (impact):
1. Independent action. The resulting effect is not associated with a combined effect and does not differ from the isolated action of each component of the mixture, and therefore is due to the predominance of the action of the most toxic component and is equal to it.
2. Additive action. The resulting effect of the mixture is equal to the sum of the effects of each component of the combined effect.
3. Potentiated action (synergism). The resulting effect of the mixture under combined exposure is greater than the sum of the effects of the separate action of all components of the mixture.
4. Antagonistic action. The resulting effect of the mixture under combined exposure is less than the sum of the effects of the separate action of all components of the mixture.
Combinations of substances with independent action are quite common, but, like combinations with antagonistic action, they are not essential for practice, since additive and potentiated actions are more dangerous.
An example of an additive effect is the narcotic effect of a mixture of hydrocarbons. A potentiated effect was noted with the combined action of sulfur dioxide and chlorine, alcohol and a number of industrial poisons.
Often there is a combined effect of xenobiotics with other adverse factors, such as high and low temperature, increased and sometimes low humidity, vibration and noise, various types of radiation, etc. With the combined effect of xenobiotics with other factors, the effect may be more significant than with the isolated effect of one or another factor.
In practice, a situation often occurs when the effect of a xenobiotic has an "intermittent" or "intermittent" character. This effect of xenobiotics has a special effect. It is known from physiology that the maximum effect of any exposure is observed at the beginning and at the end of the stimulus exposure. The transition from one state to another requires adaptation, and therefore frequent and sharp fluctuations in the level of the stimulus lead to a stronger effect on the body.
With simultaneous exposure to xenobiotics and high temperature, an increase in the toxic effect is possible.
High humidity can also increase the risk of poisoning, especially from irritating gases.
An increase in the toxic effect was registered both at elevated and at reduced barometric pressure.
Industrial noise can also increase the toxic effect. This has been proven for carbon monoxide, styrene, alkyl nitrile, cracked gas, oil gases, Boric acid aerosol.
Industrial vibration, like noise, can also enhance the toxic effect of xenobiotics. For example, cobalt dust, silicon dust, dichloroethane, carbon monoxide, epoxy resins have a more pronounced effect when combined with vibration compared to pure xenobiotics.
The worker comes into contact with xenobiotics, as a rule, while performing physical work at the same time. Physical activity, which has a powerful and versatile effect on all organs and systems of the body, cannot but affect the conditions of absorption, distribution, transformation and release of xenobiotics, and ultimately the course of intoxication.
Currently working conditions are classified according to the hygienic criteria established in Guideline R 2.2.2006-05 “Guidelines for the hygienic assessment of factors in the working environment and the labor process. Criteria and classification of working conditions.
Working conditions are divided into 4 classes:
Optimal,
Permissible,
Harmful and
Dangerous.
Optimal working conditions (1st grade)– conditions under which the health of employees is maintained and prerequisites are created for maintaining a high level of efficiency. Optimal standards working environment factors set for microclimatic parameters and work load factors. For other factors, conventionally, such working conditions are taken as optimal, under which harmful factors are absent or do not exceed the levels accepted as safe for the population.
Permissible working conditions (2nd grade) are characterized by such levels of environmental factors and the labor process that do not exceed the established hygienic standards for work places, and possible changes in the functional state of the body are restored during a regulated rest or by the beginning of the next shift and should not have an adverse effect in the near and long term on the health of workers and their offspring. Permissible working conditions are conditionally classified as safe.
Harmful working conditions (3rd grade) are characterized by the presence of harmful factors that exceed hygienic standards and have an adverse effect on the body of workers and (or) their offspring. Harmful working conditions according to the degree of excess of hygienic standards and the severity of changes in the body of workers are divided into 4 degrees of harmfulness:
1st degree 3rd class (3.1) – working conditions are characterized by such deviations in the levels of harmful factors from hygienic standards that cause functional changes that are restored, as a rule, with a longer (than by the beginning of the next shift) interruption of contact with harmful factors and increase risk damage to health;
2nd degree 3rd class (3.2) – working conditions, under which levels of harmful factors cause persistent functional changes, lead in most cases to an increase in occupationally determined morbidity (which is manifested by an increase in the level of morbidity with a temporary loss ability to work and, first of all, those diseases that reflect the state of the most vulnerable organs and systems for these factors), to the appearance of initial signs or mild (without loss of professional ability to work) forms occupational diseases arising after prolonged exposure (often after 15 years or more);
3rd degree 3rd class (3.3) - working conditions characterized by such levels of working environment factors, the impact of which leads to the development, as a rule, of occupational diseases of mild and moderate severity (with loss of professional ability to work) in the period labor activity, the growth of chronic (production-related) pathology, 4th degree, 3rd class (3.4) - working conditions under which severe forms of occupational diseases can occur (with loss of general ability to work), there is a significant increase in the number of chronic diseases and high levels morbidity with temporary disability;
Dangerous (extreme) working conditions (4th grade) characterized by levels of working environment factors, the impact of which during work shift(or part of it) poses a threat to life, a high risk of developing acute occupational injuries, including in severe forms.
Work in hazardous working conditions (4th class) is not allowed, except for liquidation accidents and emergency work to prevent emergencies. At the same time, work must be carried out using appropriate PPE and in strict observance of the time regimes regulated for such work.
Safe working conditions are defined by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Article 209) as “working conditions under which the impact on workers of harmful and (or) hazardous production factors is excluded or their exposure levels do not exceed the established standards.”
4. Adverse effects of labor impacts on humans
As you know, under certain circumstances, the impact of working conditions on a working person can lead to adverse consequences (events).
Recall that for a person such adverse events are:
Fatigue,
Illness (illness)
Fatigue- the physiological state of the body, resulting from excessively intense or prolonged activity and manifested by a temporary decrease in the functional capabilities of the human body. There are physical, mental and emotional fatigue.
physical fatigue It is manifested by a violation of muscle function: a decrease in strength, accuracy, consistency and rhythm of movements. Occurs with intense and / or prolonged physical activity.
mental fatigue manifested by a decrease in the productivity of intellectual work, a weakening of attention (difficulty concentrating), a slowdown in thinking, a decrease in mental activity, a decrease in interest in work. Occurs with intense intellectual activity.
emotional fatigue manifested by a noticeable decrease in emotional reactions under the influence of superstrong or monotonous stimuli (stress).
Insufficient rest time or excessive workload for a long time often leads to chronic fatigue, or overwork. Distinguish between mental and mental (spiritual) fatigue.
Fatigue and the associated drop in performance (productivity) is the most common adverse consequence of a simple labor process. However, if fatigue has not gone beyond the adaptive capabilities of a person (is not overwork), the body of the latter will easily recover after an appropriate rest. Various work breaks, lunch breaks, rest days and, finally, vacations are all traditional, widely used and often mandatory measures to prevent a person from declining in performance. Unfortunately, the modern rhythm of life and work is increasingly leading an increasing number of workers to chronic fatigue syndrome. According to many Western European experts, it is this problem that can become the most urgent in ensuring safety and hygiene requirements at the workplace.
Another widespread adverse consequence of labor is a human disease: malaise; feeling unwell; rapidly flowing, but relatively quickly passing ("acute" - in medical terminology) and lasting for years, sluggish with periodic exacerbations ("chronic" - in medical terminology) diseases.
The causal relationship of the disease with working conditions is very complex and ambiguous.
The complex of factors of the production environment, which forms the working conditions, the severity and intensity of the process, has both a specific (i.e., directly and clearly directed) and non-specific (general adverse) impact on workers.
The most common non-specific effect reduces the overall protective functions of the body, which leads to the development of general diseases. Since these diseases are triggered by working conditions, they are often referred to as work-related illnesses in Western European terminology work-related illnesses). It is rather difficult (and sometimes impossible) to separate them from the usual morbidity in practice. The specific weight of the influence of unfavorable working conditions on the indicators of general morbidity ranges from 20 to 40%, but may be more.
Less common specific exposure is associated with specific production factors and leads to the development of certain diseases caused by these factors. Since these diseases are caused by unfavorable working conditions of specific jobs of specific professions, they are called occupational diseases. Sometimes it is also quite difficult to separate them from the usual incidence in practice, but it can still be done. A professional medical opinion - a medical diagnosis and its compliance with the officially accepted "agreement" on what and in what cases is considered an "occupational disease" - is mandatory for occupational diseases!
Acute occupational disease a disease that occurs suddenly, after a single (during no more than one working day or one work shift) exposure to harmful production factors, resulting in a temporary or permanent loss of professional ability to work, is called a disease. As a rule, these are inhalation poisonings.
Chronic occupational disease- a disease that occurs as a result of prolonged exposure to harmful production factors, resulting in a temporary or permanent loss of professional ability to work. The vast majority of occupational diseases (about 95%) are chronic.
Practice shows that painful changes in the body can accumulate imperceptibly for years and suddenly manifest as a serious occupational disease. Therefore, occupational diseases often lead to occupational disability workers. In addition, the mortality of people with occupational diseases from ordinary diseases that have joined and develop under the influence of harmful production factors is ten times higher than among the population as a whole.
Most occupational diseases require diagnosis in specialized medical treatment facilities, where workers are sent with suspicious symptoms, possibly caused by an occupational disease.
Another fairly common adverse consequence of exposure to adverse working conditions is injury.
According to the type of impact on the body (mechanical, electrical and electromagnetic, temperature, radiation or chemical), injuries can be classified as
mechanical,
electrical,
light,
Thermal (cold),
Radiation.
These are falls, blows, bruises, bites, cuts, punctures, wounds, fractures, crushing, burns, frostbite, electric shocks, electric shocks, blinding, thermal shock, etc.
Suffocation (asphyxia) arising from the lack of oxygen or foreign objects entering the lungs (including drowning) are also forms of injury, since they lead to a rapid disruption of the normal functional state of the body. The severity of damage during injury varies and may result in on-site first aid, treatment, disability, disability or death.
Among all injuries, those injuries in which a person is unable to work for some time are highlighted.
The most serious injuries result in professional disability(inability to work in the profession) or general disability(impossibility to work at all) of the worker and even to death. To refer to injuries that led to death, a special term is used - " fatal injury".
Minor cuts, sprains, and other relatively minor injuries are often called microtraumas.
In itself, the trauma of the human body is a purely medical phenomenon. However, an injury received in the process of work is already a medical and social phenomenon: if the victim cannot work, then on what means will he (if he is alive) and his dependents live? This means that the victim, in principle, should receive somewhere from someone some means of life that compensate him for the harm caused by the injury.
From this point of view, of all the injuries received in the process of work, there are industrial injuries that have socially significant consequences: the death of an employee or the need to transfer him to another job (in Russia - for a period of at least one day); temporary or permanent loss of working capacity by an employee for a certain period (in Russia - at least one day).
Topic 1. Subject and tasks of the discipline. types of labor activity, basics of labor physiology.
1. Subject, structure, course content.
2. General concepts of human labor activity
3. Fundamentals of labor physiology
Subject, structure, content of the course.
"Fundamentals of labor protection" is a complex discipline, which is based both on general education (physics, chemistry, mathematics), and on general technical and special disciplines (strength of materials, electrical engineering, production technology and equipment).
The discipline is especially closely related to life safety, scientific organization of labor, ergonomics, engineering psychology and technical aesthetics. All the above disciplines belong to the complex of sciences that study a person in the labor process. These disciplines have a common goal - to help increase labor productivity, maintain health, and reduce the impact of adverse factors.
The methodology of the course is a scientific analysis of working conditions, technological processes, production equipment, workplaces, labor operations, organization of production in order to identify harmful and dangerous production factors for the occurrence of possible emergencies. Based on this analysis, measures are developed to eliminate adverse production factors and create safe and harmless working conditions.
The main goal of the course is to equip future specialists with knowledge of the basics of labor protection, the implementation of which in practice will help improve working conditions, increase productivity, prevent occupational diseases, industrial injuries, and accidents.
Basic concepts and terms of labor protection, their characteristics:
In DSTU 2293-93 “Labor protection. Terms and definitions” defines the basic concepts and terms of labor protection.
Occupational Safety and Health- this is a system of legal, socio-economic, organizational, technical, sanitary-hygienic and therapeutic and preventive measures and means aimed at maintaining the health and performance of a person in the process of work.
Working conditions- a set of factors of the working environment and the production process that affect the health and performance of a person in the labor process.
Harmful production factor- a factor, the impact of which on a worker in certain conditions leads to a disease or a decrease in working capacity.
Hazardous production factor- a factor, the impact of which on a worker in certain conditions leads to injury or other sudden sharp deterioration in health.
Subdivided:
physical (mobile machines and mechanisms, increased dust and gas contamination of the air, increased or decreased temperature in the room, as well as equipment and parts, increased noise, vibration, ultrasound, infrasonic vibrations, humidity, increased electromagnetic field, humidity, insufficient lighting of premises and etc.);
Chemical (this includes chemicals that have a harmful effect on the body and are divided into: general toxic, irritant, sensitizing, carcinogenic, mutagenic, affecting the reproductive function of the body.);
Biological (pathogenic microorganisms - bacteria, viruses, microscopic fungi, and their metabolic products; as well as macroorganisms - animals and plants);
Psychophysical - this includes body overload: physical (static and dynamic) and neuropsychic (mental overstrain, overstrain of the senses, monotony of work, emotional overload).
work injury- violation of the anatomical integrity of the human body or its functions as a result of exposure to production factors.
Classify:
By type of traumatic agent: mechanical, thermal, chemical, radiation, electrical, combined, etc.;
For industrial material reasons (carriers) of injury: moving parts of equipment, finished products, production waste;
According to the localization of the injury: injuries of the eyes, head, limbs, torso;
By severity: mild, severe, fatal;
For technological operations - lifting operations, transportation of goods and others.
Accident at work- sudden impact on the worker of a hazardous production factor or environment, as a result of which harm was caused to health or death occurred.
Occupational Illness- a pathological condition of a person, caused by work and associated with excessive stress on the body or the adverse effects of harmful production factors.
work-related diseases- this is a group of diseases, the course of which is aggravated by working conditions, and their frequency exceeds that of workers, outside the influence of certain occupational harmful factors.
General concepts of human labor activity
The concepts of "labor activity" and "man" are inextricably linked throughout the historical development of man as a biological species and mankind as a social community. It was through the labor activity of Homo erectus (upright man) in the course of a long evolution that Homo sapiens(reasonable person).
Recall that activity- a form of activity specific to a person, aimed at the expedient transformation of the surrounding world to meet certain needs of an individual or society.
The most important form of activity is labor activity.
Labor activity- this is a conscious expedient human activity that requires the application of efforts and is aimed at transforming the surrounding world to meet certain needs of an individual or society, including the production of certain goods or the provision of services.
The basis of work is simple labor process carried out by the working person ( subject of labor) by transformation subject of labor via means of labor and tools v product of labor.
The simple process of labor embodies the process of transformation of the external world by man so completely, vividly and clearly that it is often called simply labor.
Physical work- one of the main forms of a simple labor process, which is characterized by a significant predominance of a person's physical load over mental. Working physically, a person uses muscle energy and strength to “activate” the means and tools of labor and partially “controls” this “action”.
Physical labor can require significant physical effort(lifting and moving weight) or high tension, when some movement must be performed in a high rhythm, or endurance if a certain action needs to be performed for a long time.
Brainwork- the second of the main forms of a simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of the mental (mental) load of a person over the physical (muscular). In the process of mental labor, a person mainly uses his intellectual capabilities. Mental work can also be reproductive, formulaic, routine, monotonous and uninteresting.
Technological progress reduces the role of physical labor in the production process and increases the role of mental labor. In this case, some problems disappear, but others inevitably arise.
The responsibility of the operator for the timely recognition of signal information and making the right decision (driver, electric locomotive driver, aircraft pilot, dispatcher, etc.), the speed of changing situations (airport dispatcher), the ongoing monotony of reproductive labor that requires attention and concentration (supermarket cashier), and much more put new problems of facilitating mental work on the agenda of the 21st century.
The nature of the organization of labor changes significantly when several people work together instead of one person. Everyone is well aware that the organization of the labor of one, two, three or more people is a completely different task, introducing its own problems into the planned implementation of a simple labor process.
However, the labor of a large number of people, labor in society differs significantly from the labor of one person not only in its organization, but also in the presence of social and labor relations associated with the simple process of labor.
These relations reflect the forms and methods of involvement in labor, the distribution of labor functions among people, the distribution of the product of labor and the participation of workers in the management of organizations; methods of maintaining labor discipline; ways to create healthy and safe working conditions, etc.
Man is a social being, and labor is the source of all wealth, and therefore has a dual character. It not only acts as a simple process of labor to transform the material world, but also as social attitude(often referred to as the social-labor relation) of the people participating (directly or indirectly) in it.
Social (or socio-economic) character labor due to the form of ownership of the means of production. On this basis, one distinguishes private labor(owner or tenant) and wage labor.
private labor- this is the labor of the owner of the means of production or their tenant for himself (and at his own peril and risk). At the same time, the social character of labor remains unchanged, regardless of whether the product of labor is intended for sale (commodity production) or for personal consumption (natural economy). The person engaged in this labor is at the same time the owner of the means of production, its organizer and executor (worker).
hired labor is labor employee(who owns only his labor force) in the interests of the employer ( employer), owning on the basis of ownership or lease the means of production and acting as the organizer of production. Such work is carried out for some kind of remuneration (most often wages). At the same time, the relationship between the employee and the employer can be considered as a transaction for the purchase and sale of labor (hiring) for labor market. For an employee, wage labor is a source of livelihood, and for an employer it is a source of profit, a source of wealth.
The worldwide and universal division of labor, the unrestrained growth of the scale of modern commodity production, led to the dominance of wage labor, often called professional work, i.e., labor in one profession or another.
Fundamentals of labor physiology
Like any other activity, labor activity is fraught with dangers, including for the life and health of a person employed in a simple labor process. To resist them, you need to know the features of the structure and functioning of the human body. This is the subject of the next question of our course.
Modern man has gone through a long evolutionary path of adaptation to the environment. The human body is a single whole, all systems and organs of which develop and function in mutual dependence and conditionality.
All body systems consist of various organs that are functionally interconnected with each other. Organs are built from various tissues, consisting of cells and intercellular substance, where various biochemical processes take place. Every organ has blood vessels, and most also have lymphatics. Nerves approach and branch out to all organs.
The musculoskeletal system forms the human musculoskeletal system and ensures the body's autonomy, the ability to make various movements and move in space. In addition, bones, muscles and skin protect internal organs from the direct effects of the external environment. In particular, the heart and lungs are protected by the chest and the muscles of the chest and back; abdominal organs (stomach, intestines, kidneys) - lower spine, pelvic bones, muscles of the back and abdomen; the brain is protected by the skull bone, and the spinal cord is hidden in the spinal canal.
The supporting, motor and protective functions are performed by the skeleton, which consists of 206 bones and their joints. The skeleton can be conditionally divided into two parts: the axial skeleton (bones of the head, neck and torso) and the accessory skeleton (bones of the upper and lower extremities and their girdle - shoulder and pelvis).
Bones consist of spongy bone tissue, covered on the outside with a periosteum, the outer layer of which has a protective function, and the inner one contains nerve fibers and blood vessels. A simple bruise of the periosteum is fraught with damage and inflammation.
All bones are connected to each other. These joints can be divided into two groups: continuous joints, which do not have a cavity, and discontinuous joints, in which there is a cavity - joints. Continuous connections are formed with the help of connective tissue (the connection of the bones of the skull) or cartilage (the body of the vertebrae). Discontinuous connections - joints - are formed inside the articular bag, and the bones that form the joints are connected by very strong ligaments of connective tissue.
Everything in the human body is "designed" for normal everyday stress. With a sharp movement with a significant amplitude, the muscles and ligaments are stretched more than usual, and sprain. Individual fibers can even break, which causes severe pain and the formation of a bruise near the joint - a hematoma. Moreover, with an unsuccessful movement with a large amplitude in the “forbidden” direction, dislocation is possible - the exit of the articular head from the articular cavity, which is sometimes accompanied by sprains and muscles, and even rupture of the articular bag. Torn ligaments cause a lot of trouble, as they are very poorly restored.
Muscles are the anatomical structures with which movement is carried out. The key to this is their ability to contract under the influence of nerve signals. Muscles become maximally elastic when they are warm. Therefore, intensive physical work should always be started with a slight warm-up of the muscles. Warmed muscles should be protected from cooling, for example, by a draft. The effect of cold on warm muscles can lead to myositis (“cold” of the muscles), and even muscle neuralgia. After increased physical exertion, lactic acid accumulates in the muscles. In small amounts, this is normal. In large ones, lactic acid can cause irreversible damage to muscle tissue.
Muscles have tendons at both ends that attach them to bones. Tendons are able to withstand a large load when stretched. A damaged tendon, like a ligament, does not recover well, unlike a quickly healing bone.
The skeleton, together with the muscles, supports all other organs, gives the body certain form and position in space, forms the motor apparatus. In this case, the bones of the skeleton play a passive role, and the striated muscles play an active role. Separate parts of the skeleton, for example, the cranium, spine, protect other organs (the brain and spinal cord) from mechanical influences. Many muscles perform the same protective role.
An important protective function in the body is performed by the skin and various mucous membranes that are in direct contact with the external environment. In addition to protective functions, the skin is involved in metabolism and thermoregulation.
The heart and blood vessels form a closed system through which blood moves due to contractions of the heart muscle and vessel walls. Blood vessels are divided into three main types: arteries, capillaries, and veins.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They branch into vessels of ever smaller diameter, through which blood enters all parts of the body. Closer to the heart, the arteries have the largest diameter (about the size of a thumb), in the extremities they are the size of a pencil. In the parts of the body farthest from the heart, the blood vessels are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope. It is these microscopic vessels, capillaries, that supply cells with oxygen and nutrients. After that, the blood loaded with metabolic end products is sent to the heart through a network of vessels called veins, and from the heart to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs, as a result of which the blood is saturated with oxygen.
Damage to capillaries is an unpleasant fact, but not dangerous. V normal conditions bleeding from the damaged capillary stops within a few seconds. Damage to the artery threatens the rapid loss of large amounts of blood and death.
The heart is a powerful four-chamber muscular organ that pumps blood through a system of cavities and valves into the circulatory system. Located in chest the heart is quite reliably protected from most mechanical damage to the body. However, it is not protected from severe stress or emotional tension. Heart disease is one of the leading causes of human death.
The lymphatic system returns to the circulatory system tissue fluids that have not leaked into the capillaries. These fluids enter the lymphatic capillaries, then the lymph passes through the ducts to the lymph nodes, and from there to the subclavian vein.
The respiratory, digestive and excretory systems ensure the consumption of vital substances from the environment and the removal of metabolic products (biochemical processes of life).
The respiratory system performs gas exchange between the body and the external environment - external respiration, which is called the exchange of gases between the blood flowing through the pulmonary circulation and the external environment. External respiration is carried out entirely in the alveoli of the lungs, which are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries. A small gas exchange (1-2% of the total value) is carried out through the skin and the gastrointestinal tract.
In the airways (nasal cavity, nasopharynx, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles), the air is cleaned of dust, moistened and heated to body temperature. The intake and removal of air from the lungs is provided by the action of the respiratory muscles (intercostal muscles), as well as the diaphragm and muscles of the shoulder girdle.
The digestive system supplies the human body with the main amount of nutrients (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, salts and vitamins) necessary for its synthesis processes and energy needs.
Undigested substances and metabolic products must be removed from the body, which is what the excretory system provides.
The main amount of substances that are unnecessary to the body, formed in the process of metabolism and as a result of the decay of the body's own structures, is removed through the gastrointestinal tract in the form of feces and gases.
Another way to excrete undigested substances and decay products of one's own tissues from the body is excretion (removal) with urine and sweat.
The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that do not have excretory ducts. They produce chemicals called hormones that enter directly into the blood and have a regulatory effect on organs distant from their respective glands.
Anatomically, the nervous system consists of the central and peripheral. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system includes cranial and spinal nerves, as well as nerve nodes and plexuses outside the spinal cord and brain.
Incoming sensory information is processed by passing through specific pathways: for example, pain, visual or auditory nerve fibers. Sensitive pathways go in an upward direction to the centers of the brain. The result of the activity of the central nervous system is the activity, which is based on the contraction or relaxation of muscles or the secretion or cessation of secretion of glands.
The autonomic, or autonomic, nervous system regulates the maintenance of a relatively stable state of the internal environment of the body: a constant body temperature or blood pressure that meets the needs of the body. The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic.
The sympathetic system stimulates those processes that are aimed at mobilizing the body's forces in extreme situations or under stress. The parasympathetic system contributes to the accumulation or restoration of the body's energy resources.
The central nervous system regulates the activity of all organs, systems and the whole organism in accordance with the conditions of the external environment, changing the functioning of the work of individual organs and systems.
To put all systems into operation, the central nervous system must have information about the state of the external environment. This function (providing information) is performed by various analyzers and receptors of the sense organs.
Any analyzer consists of a receptor, nerve pathways and a brain end. Some of the receptors are adapted to perceive changes in the environment (exteroreceptors), and some - in the internal (interoreceptors). The receptor converts the energy of the stimulus into a nerve impulse. Pathways transmit nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex. There is a two-way connection between the receptors and the brain end, which ensures the self-regulation of the analyzer.
The visual analyzer plays an exceptional role in a person's life and his relationship with the outside world. With its help, we get the lion's share (about 90%) of information. Through vision, we almost instantly learn the shape, size, color of an object, determine the direction and distance to it. The visual analyzer includes the eye, the optic nerve and the visual center, located in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.
The eye is a complex optical system, where the pupil is the limiter of the light flux carrying information. Depending on the brightness of the light, its size changes. Having entered the eye through the pupil, light rays, refracted on the surface of the eyeball, in the cornea, lens and vitreous body, converge on the retina, giving an image of a visible object on it. The retina lines the back half of the eyeball and consists of light-sensitive receptors - rods and cones.
Cones and rods perform different functions. Cones allow you to clearly distinguish fine details and color of objects, but they require good illumination for this, and therefore provide the so-called "daytime" vision. "Night" vision is carried out with the help of retinal rods, which are able to respond to low light, but do not allow to distinguish fine details and color.
In addition, the eye gives us the opportunity to judge the spatial arrangement of objects in the external environment. Such an estimate of distances "by eye" is called an eye gauge.
Second in importance after the visual analyzer is auditory. Only it allows us to receive information out of sight (for example, from behind or in the dark) from various distances almost instantly.
The auditory analyzer responds to acoustic vibrations in the frequency range from 16 to 20,000 Hz. It helps us hear other people's speech.
The perceiving part of the sound analyzer is the ear, which consists of three sections: outer, middle and inner. Known to all, the outer ear consists of the auricle and the external auditory canal, tightened with an elastic tympanic membrane, which delimits the outer and middle ear. The middle ear cavity communicates with the nasopharyngeal cavity through the Eustachian tube, through which air passes into the middle ear cavity during swallowing. The inner ear is distinguished by the most complex device and is located in the thickness of the temporal bone of the skull. It is there that the receptors are located that perceive irritation and cause a nerve impulse, which is transmitted to the corresponding section of the cerebral cortex, where the auditory representation is synthesized.
The next analyzer - the sense of smell - also allows you to receive information from great distances, but representatives of the animal world are much better at it than humans. Olfactory receptors are located in the nose and perceive the smallest amount of a substance in the air, which is felt as a smell.
Another analyzer - taste - allows you to get information about the quality of food. We sense taste with receptors located on the tongue and oral mucosa.
Another analyzer is touch, by which we mean the sensations that arise when a stimulus is directly applied to the surface of the skin.
The tactile analyzer perceives touch and pressure on skin receptors. The skin of different parts of the body has different sensitivity, it is highest at the tips (pads) of the fingers. The receptors of the tactile analyzer allow us to confidently distinguish the localization of even a short-term touch. However, touch does not prevent us from sitting or lying down for hours, because a characteristic feature of the tactile analyzer is the rapid development of adaptation to the stimulus, that is, the disappearance of the feeling of touch or pressure.
The temperature sensitivity of the skin is provided by two types of receptors - cold and heat.
The spatial distribution of pain receptors is interesting. There are many of them where there are few tactile receptors, and vice versa. Pain receptors cause a withdrawal reflex from the stimulus, because a painful stimulus is a danger. Under the influence of pain, the body quickly mobilizes to fight the danger, the work of all body systems is rebuilt.
The analyzers discussed above are so important and have long been known to man that he called them sense organs: sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. But besides them, a person has other analyzers and receptors.
The human brain receives information not only from the environment, but also from the body. Sensitive nervous apparatuses are present in all internal organs. Reacting to external conditions, they give the signals necessary to regulate the activity of internal organs.
Important analyzers are proprioceptors, which allow you to feel muscle tension and the spatial arrangement of the body and limbs.
The presence of a person with two hands provided him with the possibility of activity. To do this, our ancestor had to stand on two legs from four paws. According to the laws of physics, the vertical position is completely unstable, and therefore it is skillfully maintained by the body with the help of the vestibular apparatus. Violation of the function of the vestibular analyzer can cause dizziness and nausea (seasickness).
Despite the difference in the diverse receptors and analyzers, their functioning has much in common, since they all developed in the process of evolution as a defense system.
In the real conditions of terrestrial habitation, a person is affected by a lot of very different, often weak, irritants. In the course of evolution, a person has developed the ability to perceive only those stimuli, the intensity of which reaches a certain value. Such a minimum adequately perceived value is usually called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity or the threshold of perception. At the same time, perception with respect to the onset of exposure to the stimulus is always delayed by some time, called the latent (latent) period.
Above the threshold of perception, the intensity of sensations slowly increases with increasing intensity of the stimulus, and their relationship can be approximately expressed by the Weber–Fechner logarithmic law.
High stimulus values are rare in nature and are usually associated with a hazard about which the organism must be "warned". Therefore, with an increase in the intensity of the stimulus, there always comes a moment when the sensation is replaced by a special signal of danger - pain, from which the body wants only one thing - to get rid of, and, getting rid of it, saves itself from danger. Such a maximum adequately perceived value of the stimulus is usually called the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity or pain threshold.
The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately felt value (from the perception threshold to the pain threshold) determines the sensitivity range of the analyzer. Within its sensitivity range, the analyzer may cease to distinguish between two different, but close in intensity, stimuli. Evaluating this ability of the analyzer, they speak of a differential threshold (or threshold of discrimination), which is understood as the minimum difference between the intensities of two stimuli, causing a barely noticeable difference in sensations.
Like everything in the living world, threshold values are not strictly stable and should be considered as statistical averages.
In real conditions of activity, several stimuli simultaneously act on each analyzer of a person.
We emphasize that the division of the entire set of analyzers into separate systems is rather conditional. These systems clearly differ only in their receptors. In the vast majority of cases, a change in the nature of the organism's vital activity in response to a change in environmental conditions occurs with the participation of several analyzers, and then it is practically impossible to draw a clear line between them. For example, the vestibular apparatus, gravireceptors and proprioreceptors of muscles, tactile receptors of the skin, receptors of the organ of vision take part in the regulation of posture. In addition, in this case, all analyzer systems have the same actuator - the musculoskeletal system. It is even more difficult to single out individual analyzers in the case when the choice of reaction to an external disturbance is carried out consciously.
The human body and the external environment
The human body was formed in the course of a long evolution and is sufficiently adapted to the environment within its natural change. We feel normal and can live in winter and summer, in the cool of dawn and in the heat of noon, we can lie as if dead (with a minimum of energy), or we can run headlong, spending ten times more energy.
During the period of evolution, a number of specialized systems, fixed in the anatomical and physiological functioning, have developed in the human body, compensating for adverse changes in external conditions. Any change in environmental conditions automatically generates a corresponding change in life processes, mobilizing the body's defenses.
The changes in the body that occur under the influence of changes in the external environment are aimed, on the one hand, at adaptation (adaptation) to new environmental conditions, and on the other hand, at maintaining a stable state (homeostasis or homeostasis) and functioning.
Adaptation and homeostasis are interrelated and complementary processes, which are one of the most important features of all living systems. Without exaggeration, we can say that these are the main mechanisms for the safe functioning of the human body, which determine its health and even life.
Depending on the nature of the external influence and the individual characteristics of the internal environment of the body, the functional state of the latter can be in one of four "modes":
1. Normal adaptation state to environmental conditions with sufficient reserves of functional capabilities of the body and maintaining homeostasis with a minimum voltage of regulatory systems. Such a functional state is optimal and comfortable for a person, and he can stay in it as long as he wants.
2. The state of intense satisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions with the expenditure of reserves of the body's functional capabilities and the maintenance of homeostasis due to the tension of regulatory systems. Such a functional state is acceptable for a person for a relatively short period, after which the body must return to a state of normal adaptation (state 1). Otherwise, the state of intense satisfactory adaptation will worsen and pass into the next state (3).
3. State of unsatisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions in case of insufficiency of the basic functional capabilities of the body and the maintenance of homeostasis due to the inclusion of additional - compensatory mechanisms. This condition is undesirable and without special measures it can easily worsen and move to the next state (4).
4. State of maladaptation(failure of adaptation mechanisms) with insufficient functional capabilities of the body, including compensatory ones, and violation of homeostasis. This condition requires urgent special intervention, otherwise it threatens the body with death.
Under normal conditions of a normally changing external environment, an organism that successfully copes with the need to adapt and maintain homeostasis is healthy (state 1). This state alternates with state 2 depending on environmental conditions.
When the body turns on the mechanisms of compensatory reactions to maintain homeostasis (state 3), we have to talk about the so-called "premorbid state" - the state of pre-illness. There are no clinical symptoms of the disease, as modern medicine understands it, but, unfortunately, it is impossible to say that a person is healthy.
When an organism cannot adapt to environmental conditions (state 4), it becomes ill and/or dies.
It follows from the foregoing that ensuring human security consists in such regulation of the external environment and the functioning of the internal environment of the body, which, under the influence of this external environment, allows the body to remain within its adaptive capabilities (states 1 and 2).
In addition to the above-described adverse conditions - diseases, a person in the course of his life is faced with the possibility of injury.
An injury is a violation of the anatomical integrity or physiological functions of human tissues or organs, caused by a sudden external impact with energy sufficient to injure.
Injury (sharp disturbance, as a rule, long-lasting) of mental processes is called mental trauma, or shock.
An injury that causes death is called fatal injury.
Injury is a consequence of exclusively external factors, but not the development of any processes in the body, and in this it differs from most diseases. However, with diseases such as acute poisoning, it is very similar. Poisoning is actually both a type of injury and a type of disease.
The death of a person stops his existence and is the most unfavorable phenomenon for us.
Death- irreversible cessation of the life of the body; stepwise process, including agony, clinical death, individual death and biological death.
Agony - the final moment of life preceding clinical death. Agony is characterized by a deep dysfunction of the higher parts of the brain with simultaneous excitation of the centers of the medulla oblongata. In some cases, the state of the body during agony is reversible.
clinical death- the borderline state of the body between life and death, in which there are no visible signs of life, the functions of the central nervous system fade away, but metabolic processes in the tissues remain. Clinical death lasts for a person for several minutes and through individual death passes into biological death.
individual death- the phase of dying, in which the death of brain cells occurs. At the same time, the organism (like a plant) still lives, but the personality traits and individualities have already been erased irrevocably. A person reanimated at this stage of death ceases to be fully what he was before, loses his "human" features.
biological death- complete cessation of all metabolic processes
in the body, irreversible changes in tissues and organs.
The science that studies changes in the functional state of the human body under the influence of his labor activity and substantiates the methods and means of organizing the labor process aimed at maintaining high performance and maintaining the health of workers is called physiology of work.
Tasks of labor physiology:
1. Study physiological patterns labor activity.
2. Study of the physiological parameters of the body during various types of work.
3. Development of practical measures and recommendations aimed at optimizing the labor process (reducing fatigue, maintaining the health of workers, increasing efficiency, increasing labor productivity)
The concepts of working capacity, fatigue, overwork.
performance- this is the potential ability of a person to perform work of a certain volume and quality for a given time and with sufficient efficiency.
Working phases:
Phase 1 - the phase of development (characterized by an increase in the activity of the central nervous system, an increase in the level of metabolic processes, increased activity cardiovascular systems, i.e. the level of performance is gradually increasing.).
Phase 2 - the phase of relatively stable performance (characterized by an optimal stable level of functioning of the central nervous system, stable work of all organs and systems of the body.)
Phase 3 - the phase of reduced performance (associated with the development of fatigue)
Fatigue- this is a state of the nervous system, in which, as a result of overexcitation of its individual sections, inhibition of conditioned reflexes (dynamic stereotype) and a decrease in working capacity occur.
Overwork- this is a pathological condition of the body (disease), which does not go away on its own after rest, but requires special treatment.
Man in the process of his activity is constantly included in extremely diverse relationships and spheres of public life. Even during one day of life, he can be a member of a variety of social groups and, in accordance with this, perform more and more new social roles prescribed by a particular social group. The formation of social ties, the most mobile, changeable at the level of small social groups (production collectives) and relatively stable at the level of class, national and other relations (macrostructure), is the result of the historical development of society.
Activity is a type of activity aimed at such a change in the external environment and the person himself, as a result of which something new is obtained.
Vibrant activity is fundamental and fundamental to the existence of human society. The diversity of social life implies a variety of activities.
Activity is a feature of human existence, which distinguishes it from the animal world. If behavior is characteristic of both man and animal, characterizing adaptation to the world, adaptation to the already established natural and social environment, then activity is inherent only in man, thanks to whose activity society changes as an integral organism.
Any type of activity assumes the presence and interrelation of the following components:
a person (or subject) with his goals, values, knowledge and skills;
operations of expedient activity;
objects to which the activity of the subject is directed in the course of these operations.
All human efforts are completed by the result or product of activity.
In the types of human activity, labor is often distinguished as a kind of social activity of a person aimed at transforming the environment of his existence. All types of activity have signs of "labor" that distinguish a person from an animal.
Labor as a purposeful human activity began with the manufacture of tools. The use of tools is a specifically human trait. Only people are able to mediate their impact on the environment with the help of specially created means of labor, different from the organs of the body. Means of labor are various devices that serve to enhance the muscular (and later mental) capabilities of a person. In each type of activity, specific goals and tasks are set, a special arsenal of means, operations and methods is used to achieve the goals. At the same time, none of the types of activity exists outside of interaction with each other, thus determining the systemic nature of all spheres of public life.
Based on the difference between the types of activities according to their objects and results, material and spiritual activities are distinguished.
Material (practical) activity is associated with the creation of material values - things necessary to meet the needs of people. The complex palette of production relations and productive forces in the economic sphere is the subject of study of political economy, various new areas that have appeared within the framework of economic science at the present stage (labor economics, economic theory, micro- and macroeconomics, etc.).
To ensure the security and prosperous existence of the state and citizens, the most important form of government is political and legal activity, its focus on moral values.
The development of modern society is not possible without social partnership between the employee and the employer. How this partnership will develop depends largely on how the issues of labor protection are resolved at a particular enterprise and in the state. Modern medicine defines health as the body's ability to self-preserve and perfect self-regulation, maintain homeostasis, and also as a person's ability to optimally satisfy their material and spiritual needs. The potential of physical, mental, mental activity is the most important guarantee of a full-fledged life of a person, and, consequently, of society. Illness is a material alternative to health. This is a qualitatively new state of the body, which is defined as a violation of the optimal psychosomatic state and the ability to satisfy one's needs. At the same time, the concept of disease is closely connected with the concept of the norm as the functional optimum of the biological system, and pathology as a violation of this norm. The causes of diseases today are considered not individual, but the joint action of external and internal factors, the role of which varies depending on the level of development of society.
The constitution of the World Health Organization states that public health should be understood as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
The adaptive and ecological norm reflect certain parameters of the preservation of adaptive structures and functions of a certain hierarchical level. It also includes all vital bioenergy and ecological elements and components. At the same time, adaptive and ecological norms show the degree of maximum allowable impact on humans, which ensures survival and optimal preservation of the structure and dynamic qualities of the ecosystem. After all, they are in a dialectical and organic connection with the natural nature and adaptive endurance of a person, with his material and spiritual activity. In the practical use of the adaptive and ecological norm, it is always necessary to take into account the psychobioenergetic and environmental factors uncertainty and incompleteness of knowledge, eco-adaptation risk and violations that can lead to anomalies and pathologies in ecosystems and nature, in society and man.
According to the World Health Organization, “health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being”.
An accident at work is a case of exposure to a working hazardous production factor in the performance of work duties or tasks of a work manager.
Occupational poisoning is a violation of human health as a result of a short action of harmful substances on the respiratory tract, digestive tract, and skin. The moment of death of a person is determined by the fact of the cessation of the activity of his brain.
Production activity is a set of actions of workers using the means of labor necessary to convert resources into finished products, including the production and processing of various types of raw materials, construction, and the provision of various types of services.
Safe working conditions - working conditions under which the impact on workers of harmful and (or) dangerous production factors is excluded. Or the levels of their impact do not exceed the established standards.
A harmful production factor is a production factor, the impact of which on an employee can lead to injury to the employee.
The safety of the production activities of personnel depends on the state of the organization of the workplace, equipment, technological equipment and methods of work of the worker.
The safety of the production process is the property of this process to maintain its safe state when proceeding in the specified modes for a specified time.
Human safety in the course of production activities is ensured by the use of the safest options for technological processes, the choice of the safest equipment and protective equipment, the safest options for organizational and technical measures and the rules of personal conduct.
Dangerous and harmful production factors are divided into:
Physical factors:
moving machines and mechanisms, moving parts of machines and equipment, moving products, blanks, materials;
dust and gas contamination of the air;
deviation from the norm of microclimate parameters;
increased level of noise, ultrasound, infrasound;
increased level of vibration;
electric current and static electricity;
electromagnetic radiation, increased level of magnetic and electrical components;
ionizing radiation;
lack of lighting, its pulsation, increased infrared and ultraviolet radiation.
Chemical factors:
general toxic;
annoying;
sensitizing;
carcinogenic;
mutagenic, affecting the reproductive function of humans.
Biological factors:
These are micro-organisms that cause disease.
Psychophysiological factors:
physical overload (static, dynamic, hypodynamia);
neuropsychic overload (mental overstrain, overstrain of analyzers, emotional overload, monotony of work).
Potential danger and risk. Any activity, both industrial and domestic, is potentially dangerous.
The set of conditions for interaction between a person and the production environment, under which potential hazards turn into real ones, are called circumstances, and the immediate events that resulted in an accident or accident are called the causes of accidents and accidents.
Human health largely depends on the severity and intensity of the labor process.
Work in dangerous conditions is allowed in extreme cases, for example, in emergency situations, localization and liquidation of an accident, rescue operations, when not carrying out work threatens with catastrophic consequences, human and large material losses.
Depending on the severity and intensity of labor, the degree of harmfulness or danger of working conditions, the size is determined wages, duration of vacation, the amount of additional payments and a number of other established benefits designed to compensate for the negative consequences of labor activity for a person.
Thus, we are talking about creating such conditions under which negative effects would not exceed the protective abilities of the body.
In order to choose means and methods of protection against negative factors, it is necessary to know their main characteristics and effects on humans. It is practically impossible to completely eliminate the impact of negative factors on a person, both from a technical and economic point of view. Sometimes this is not advisable, since even in the natural natural environment a person is exposed to them - on our planet there is a natural radiation and electromagnetic background, air and water contain harmful substances emitted by natural sources, etc.
In the working area, it is necessary to ensure such levels of negative factors that do not cause a deterioration in human health, diseases. To exclude irreversible changes in the human body, hygienists limit the impact of negative factors to the maximum permissible levels.
Labor is a purposeful human activity to satisfy one's cultural and socio-economic needs. The nature and organization of human labor activity significant influence to change the functional state of the human body. Diverse forms of labor activity are divided into physical and mental labor.
In the conditions of the modern world, with the advent of devices that facilitate labor activity (computer, technical equipment), the motor activity of people has sharply decreased compared to previous decades. This, ultimately, leads to a decrease in the functional capabilities of a person, as well as to various kinds of diseases. Today, purely physical labor does not play a significant role, it is replaced by mental labor.
But physical labor, characterized by increased physical activity, can in some cases be considered from the negative side.
In general, the lack of energy consumption necessary for a person leads to a mismatch between the activities of individual systems (muscular, bone, respiratory, cardiovascular) and the body as a whole with the environment, as well as a decrease in immunity and a deterioration in metabolism.
At the same time, overload is also harmful. Therefore, both with mental and physical labor, it is necessary to engage in health-improving physical culture, to strengthen the body.
In the process of physical and mental labor, a certain complex of emotions arises in a person. Emotions are a person's reaction to certain conditions. And the working environment is a complex of factors that positively or negatively affect the well-being and performance of a normal person.
The concept of labor activity
Labor activity a person is a kind of his social behavior. Labor activity is a rational series of operations and functions, rigidly fixed in time and space, performed by people united in labor organizations. The labor activity of employees provides a solution to a number of tasks:
the creation of material wealth as a means of life support for a person and society as a whole;
provision of services for various purposes;
development of scientific ideas, values and their applied analogues;
accumulation, conservation, processing and analysis, transfer of information and its carriers;
development of a person as an employee and as a person, etc.
Labor activity - regardless of the method, means and results - is characterized by a number of common properties:
a certain functional and technological set of labor operations;
a set of relevant qualities of labor subjects, recorded in professional, qualification and job characteristics;
material and technical conditions and spatio-temporal framework of implementation;
in a certain way, the organizational, technological and economic connection of labor subjects with the means, the conditions for their implementation;
normative-algorithmic method of organization, through which the behavioral matrix of individuals included in manufacturing process(organizational and managerial structure).
Each type of labor activity can be divided into two main characteristics: psychophysiological content (the work of the sense organs, muscles, thought processes, etc.); and the conditions under which work is carried out. The structure and level of physical and nervous loads in the process of labor activity are determined by these two characteristics: physical - depend on the level of labor automation, its pace and rhythm, the design and rationality of the placement of equipment, tools, equipment; nervous - due to the volume of processed information, the presence of industrial danger, the degree of responsibility and risk, the monotony of work, relationships in the team.
Thus, in general, we can talk about a reduction in motor components and an increase in the importance of the mental component of labor activity. In addition, the NTP creates technical prerequisites for the withdrawal of the employee from the zone of industrial hazards and dangers, improves the protection of the performer, and frees him from heavy and routine work.
However, an excessive decrease in motor activity turns into hypodynamia. The growth of nervous loads can lead to injuries, accidents, cardiovascular and neuropsychiatric disorders. An increase in the speed and power of equipment can lead to inconsistency in the parameters of its operation and the ability of a person to react and make decisions. New technologies often lead to the emergence of new production hazards and hazards, negative impact on the environment.
The problem is to "attach" technology to human capabilities, to take into account its psychophysiological characteristics at the stages of design, construction, operation of the "man-machine" system. All this determines the need to study the physiological and mental processes in human labor activity.
The role of labor in society
The history of the development of man and society testifies to the decisive role of labor in this process.
In the process of its evolution, labor became significantly more complicated: a person began to perform more complex and diverse operations, to use more and more organized means of labor, to set and achieve higher goals. Labor has become multifaceted, varied, perfect.
Under the conditions of using more advanced resources and means of labor, the organization of labor has an increasing impact on the environment, sometimes to the detriment of the environment. Therefore, the environmental aspect in labor activity acquires a new meaning.
The joint work of people is something more than the simple sum of their labor. Joint work is also considered as a progressive unity of the total results of labor. The interaction of a person with natural materials, means of labor, as well as the relationships that people enter into at the same time - all this is called production.
Features of modern labor:
The increase in the intellectual potential of the labor process, which is manifested in the strengthening of the role of mental labor, the growth of the conscious and responsible attitude of the employee to the results of his activities;
The increase in the share of materialized labor associated with the means of labor is due to the achievements of scientific and technological progress and, with limited physical capabilities of a person, serves as a decisive factor in the growth of productivity and labor efficiency;
A growing aspect of the social process. Currently, the factors of growth in labor productivity are considered not only to improve the skills of an employee or increase the level of mechanization and automation of his work, but also the state of human health, his mood, relationships in the family, team and society as a whole. This social aspect of labor relations significantly complements the material aspects of labor and plays an important role in human life.
Relationship of the sociology of labor with the labor sciences
The system of labor sciences includes many diverse and relatively independent disciplines.
Sociology of labor studies “the behavior of employers and employees in response to the action of economic and social incentives to work”, the relationship of social groups in the labor process, focuses on the demographic differences of people, on differences in their education and qualifications, on the peculiarities of upbringing and political views, religion and social position.
The variety of labor sciences is due to the specifics of those labor problems that are the object of study of each of them.
Subject labor economics is a system of socio-economic relations that develop in the process of labor activity between the employer, employee and the state regarding the organization of labor. Labor economics studies the socio-economic problems of labor, the problems of ensuring the efficiency and productivity of labor on the basis of its scientific organization.
Physiology of labor how science studies the influence and mechanism of the impact of the labor process on the physiological characteristics of a person, is the scientific basis for the development of labor standards, work and rest regimes, workplace planning, and ensuring favorable working conditions.
Labor psychology studies the psychological characteristics of a person in the labor process, the attitude of a person to his work activity, it is the basis of professional training, the development of systems for motivating and stimulating the work of workers, and is a tool for managing labor conflicts.
Ergonomics is the basis for the rationalization of labor processes, since it studies human activity in its connection with technology, machines, means of production. Ergonomics optimizes human interaction with machine systems.
Occupational health, industrial sanitation and safety ensure the creation of healthy and safe working conditions at the workplace.
Demography This is the science of population, it studies the processes of reproduction of the population, its sex and age structure, and the distribution of the population across the regions of the country, which makes it possible to effectively meet the needs of enterprises in the necessary labor resources.
Personnel Management makes it possible to realize the labor potential (by selecting, training and fair remuneration of the personnel of the organization of employees), and allows you to effectively manage the organization's personnel (provided by choosing the optimal management style, developing a personnel policy, conducting personnel marketing).
Sociology of professions studies the social division of labor, the prestige of various types of labor activity, the professional suitability of a person, etc.
Labour Organization studies the formation of an orderly system of interaction between workers, their groups and divisions to achieve their goals, which makes it possible to ensure the effective connection of the labor force with the means of production in specific conditions, the realization of the labor potential of workers and satisfies the needs of all subjects of social and labor relations.
labor law is the legal basis of labor relations. It establishes the legal norms of labor, regulates the rights and obligations of the subjects of social and labor relations, determines the differentiation in wages, and serves as the basis for social policy and social protection of workers.
labor statistics makes it possible to analyze labor efficiency on the basis of quantitative indicators of labor productivity, the number and dynamics of personnel, payroll, etc.
What tasks does the discipline solve
"Economics and sociology of labor"?
The main objectives of the discipline "Economics and sociology of labor" are determined by its purpose, which provides for the study of scientific foundations, theoretical, methodological provisions and practical experience in the field of human resource management - the formation and rational use of the labor potential of each person and society as a whole in the event of new social and labor relations in a market economy.
Home set- study of the essence and mechanisms of economic and social processes in the sphere of labor in the context of human life and society. Its solution is based on the study of the methodological provisions of the economic food theory, which reveals the fundamental role of labor in the life of a person and society, as well as the economic and social characteristics of labor in specific historical conditions.
Another task- studying the factors and reserves of effective employment, the formation and rational use of labor potential, increasing the efficiency and productivity of labor. The determining prerequisites for solving this problem are, firstly, the mechanism for the implementation of Russian laws and socio-economic policy in the regulation of social and labor relations, and secondly, the study of patterns, objective and subjective factors affecting economic and social processes, the attitude of a person to work, his behavior in the team.
Another task- identification of the relationship of social and labor relations with economic relations and processes occurring in the national economy of a market type, focused on social development, as well as the relationship of the labor market with the markets of raw materials, capital, stock markets. As a result, the study of the process of the cost of labor, as well as the formation of labor costs at all stages of the reproduction cycle, is of particular importance. The expansion and deepening of knowledge in this area requires the study of foreign as well as domestic experience in various regions of the country and at various enterprises, the study of the state of internal labor markets, familiarity with the methodological methods of economic analysis, audit, and sociological research.
Social engineering is a management activity aimed at changing social systems and social institutions in accordance with a given goal using science-intensive technologies and an engineering approach. In domestic science and management practice, this term was first used at the beginning of the 20th century by the director of the Central Institute of Labor A. Gastev. In his understanding, a social engineer is the leader of a work collective, on whose activity the success of the functioning of the entire social engineering machine depends. The idea of social engineering was to closely combine human complexes with the organization of machine complexes. These machine-human complexes are based on the unity of biology and engineering sciences. Soviet party and statesman, a prominent specialist in the problems of labor organization and management P.M. Kerzhentsev limited the problems of social engineering to the management of people and teams, regardless of the field of activity. He formulated a number of general principles of management - this is the establishment of the goals and objectives of the organization and management activities; development of a plan, working methods and management methods; setting up accounting and control. According to P.M. Kerzhentsev, under socialism, the main attention in management activities should have been given to the planned conduct of production and labor activities. But the leader, having real power, significantly affects the workforce and the effectiveness of its activities, so the selection of leaders should be based on the compliance of his personal qualities with the requirements of the specific position for which he is applying.
Domestic social engineering of the 20-30s of the XX century was based on psychotechnics and sociological research, the traditions of which were continued after a thirty-year break by factory sociology of the 60-80s. In the theory and practice of social planning, which received their further development during the years of the Khrushchev thaw, along with the data of sociological surveys, ideological attitudes and socio-cultural standards were used. In domestic social engineering, the following principles were formulated: the principle of direct participation in solving social problems, since urgent pressing problems are being solved; the principle of continuous social engineering support and social design; the principle of technologization, that is, the provision of optimal methods of influence.
In Western sociology, socioengineering activity was considered in detail by K. Popper in his works The Poverty of Historicism (1945) and Open Society (1945). He considered social engineering as a set of applied sociology approaches aimed at rationally changing social systems based on fundamental knowledge about society and predicting the possible results of transformations.
The modern socioengineering approach makes it possible to change the social reality based on the methods of planning, programming, foresight and forecasting. Social engineering activities include the following procedures:
Assessment of the state of the object of social engineering activities;
Forecasting the most probable options for the development of the internal and external environment of the forecast object;
Modeling the future state of the research object using mathematical, cybernetic, predictive and other methods;
Development of a social project for a new state of the object under study;
Social planning in accordance with the social project;
Implementation of the project with the help of innovative social technologies.
Modern domestic social engineering is developing in the following blocks (directions):
Societal block - the construction of social institutions: state building, the creation of a modernized system of education, health care, etc.;
Regional block - formation of regional communities;
Municipal bloc - formation of local communities;
Organizational block - construction of organizations;
Block of group engineering - formation of target groups and teams.
social engineering today is a complex of practically oriented knowledge in the field of managing social structures and processes, developing in the following areas:
Construction of social institutions, for example, state building, reorganization of the higher education system, etc. ("societal" block);
Regional construction (regional block);
Formation of local communities (municipal block);
Building organizations or "organizational engineering" (organization block);
Formation of target groups and teams ("group" engineering). Electoral technologies and other ways to promote leaders or their teams are an integral part of all blocks of social engineering activities.
In educational practice, the ideas of social engineering are implemented through the use of modern educational technologies and active teaching methods, as well as through the “saturation” of the educational process with disciplines of the social engineering and organizational cycle, including:
theory and methods of social engineering;
diagnostics of organizations;
forecasting and modeling of the development of organizations;
organizational design and programming;
social planning;
introduction of social innovations in organizations, etc.;
workshop on social technologies;
conflict resolution methods.
The formation and development of social engineering was significantly influenced by psychology, applied anthropology, management sciences, and now synergetics and social synergetics - the science of self-organization of society, which determines the conditions and factors for the sustainable development of society. From the standpoint of social synergy in society, thanks to communication links, a synthesis of material and non-material structures takes place, and evolutionary development based on the exchange of information determines the natural selection of energetically more profitable methods of social management. This process ensures the transition of society to a qualitatively new level. From the point of view of synergetics, management is considered as an open system, which is based on interaction with the object, and not on the impact on it. The control mechanism is carried out in two directions. First, a socio-technological corridor is set that is acceptable from the point of view of the development and functioning of the social system. Within this corridor, the social system can implement various trajectories of self-development, and innovation processes are directed in a socially constructive direction. Secondly, for sustainable social development and rise to a new level of self-organization, local influence is carried out at the bifurcation points at the right time and in the right place.
One of the options for the practical application of the synergistic approach to management is the theory of a self-learning organization capable of creating, acquiring and exchanging knowledge and changing its behavior in accordance with new knowledge and intuition. The sources of learning are employees of the organization, external consultants, business coaches, own business, external environment and lessons learned from own practical experience. A self-learning organization in modern conditions is the most competitive, synergetics is a universal methodology of the modern information society, its structures and a socio-engineering approach to managing society. This approach places high demands on managers, as they must have modern socio-technological knowledge.
Many researchers come to the conclusion that the social engineering approach to management produces the third factor, in which contradictions in the relations between the object and the subject of management are resolved. The object of social engineering ceases to be only a means of implementing social programs developed by experts, and becomes a subject itself. A trinitarian approach is being formed - management - co-management - self-government. The social engineering approach turns management into an interactive process, and the task of social engineers is to create conditions for unlocking the internal potential of the social system.
Unfortunately, in domestic management science and practice, some wary attitude towards social engineering remains, since sometimes manufacturability is perceived as experimentation and manipulation of people. This fact is largely due to the low demand for social design of program-target management by subjects of management.
A systematic approach to managing the innovative development of industrial enterprises
The system approach to management of innovative development of the industrial enterprises
Introduction*
In the 21st century, the world community is facing innovative challenges associated with the development of high technologies, informatization, changes in the content of labor and the quality of the workforce. At the same time, the process of globalization generates both new forms of international cooperation and interstate relations, and new contradictions, requiring new approaches to solving political, economic and social problems at all levels of their manifestation. Coordinated development, harmonization of norms and standards of social and labor relations, exchange of accumulated experience can contribute to the construction of a highly organized, economically and environmentally efficient production. The result of efforts to stabilize production and improve the social climate within the country largely depends on the development of industrial enterprises, which are the primary cell of any economic system and can become the driving force for the innovative development of the national economy.
Theoretical approaches to substantiation of innovative development of industrial enterprises
In economic science, there are various approaches to determining the essence, meaning, foundations of the functioning and development of an enterprise:
the resource approach, according to which enterprises (organizations) survive to the extent that they acquire and maintain their resources, and the possibility of accumulating organizational-specific resources by an enterprise is the main rationale for its existence;
the system approach considers the enterprise as a highly complex open socio-economic system, connected by specific relations with its external and internal environment, the main and most active element of which is a person;
the evolutionary approach is meaningfully and metamorphically connected with the evolutionary worldview on the process of constant and causal change in the activities of an enterprise, while the mechanism of change is associated with variability, inheritance and selection, where special attention is paid to the innovation process: the emergence, consolidation and dissemination of innovations, the study of competition as a process selection, problem solving information, uncertainty and time;
the neo-institutional approach analyzes the activity of an enterprise under conditions of restrictions due to the institutional structure of society, where enterprises, as economic agents, operate in a world of high transaction costs, under conditions of uncertainty and risk, which gives rise to limited rationality and opportunistic behavior; within the framework of neo-institutional theory, a transactional approach is singled out, which explores the reasons for the existence of a company and the features of their internal structure, focusing on the need for a company to avoid transaction costs for concluding transactions in the market and using the advantages of cooperation to obtain the maximum result of its activities.
the process approach is one of the basic in strategic management studies and considers the enterprise in terms of processes associated with entrepreneurial activity, organizational renewal and growth, as well as the development and application of a strategy that directs organizational actions, based on the logic of cause-and-effect explanation , linking independent variables, on the types of concepts or variables that reflect the actions of enterprises or individuals, on the sequence of events that describe the change in phenomena over time.
the behavioral approach explores the real behavior of enterprises as economic entities, in whose activities not rational, but conventional behavior (that is, subject to accepted rules and conventions) dominates, the analysis of which allows us to build a generalized decision-making model;
the knowledge-based approach focuses on the movement of knowledge and its impact on the efficiency and competitive advantages of enterprises, viewing knowledge as subjective information, inseparable from the individual's beliefs and purposeful action, giving great importance to firms that create and develop routines, acting as knowledge repositories .
the synthetic approach means that the models of the theory of firms must take into account "technological" and "social" factors, arguing that the structure of social relations has a constant impact on the organizational dynamics of the enterprise.
An analysis of the theories of the firm makes it possible to substantiate the mechanism for managing the innovative development of industrial enterprises in the context of the clustering of the economy and to determine the main elements that ensure the interaction and cooperation of participants in the innovation process at different stages (Table 1).
Innovative development is considered as a purposeful continuous process of innovation in the scientific, industrial, economic, commercial, financial, marketing, management activities of an enterprise, aimed at the fullest possible satisfaction of social needs based on the implementation of scientific achievements in the production process to obtain the maximum economic, social and environmental effect, expressed in absolute and relative change (increment) of economic indicators.
